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From Elon Journal of Undergraduate Research in Communications VOL. 5 NO. 1 Palestinian-Arab Media Frames and Stereotypes of Israeli-Jews
By Katy Steele
Elon Journal of Undergraduate Research in Communications
2014, Vol. 5 No. 1 | pg. 1/4 | »
This study sought to take the pulse on the modern Israeli-Palestinian conflict by analyzing primary sources from online Palestinian news organizations. Thirty articles were selected including editorials, opinion and news analysis pieces. The author categorized them based on six prevalent topics and 18 subtopics, or frames. “Land Rights” emerged as the most prevalent topic, while “dominance,” “inhumane,” “military violence,” and “true victim,” as the top four frames. The study found that the Israeli-Palestinian conflict is largely defined in terms of land and territory; violence attributed to the Israeli military generates a stereotype that many Palestinians apply to all Israeli-Jews; and stories attempted to appeal to emotion and evoke sympathy in order to legitimatize the Palestinians’ claim of true victimization.
Tension between Arabs and Jews spans centuries of historical dispute. Today, the tension continues manifested in the Israeli-Palestinian conflict. While territorial dispute is a main source of the tension, other factors should be taken into consideration, including ethnicity, religion, nationalism and psychological implications. Regardless, on both sides of the conflict, Arabs and Israelis are taught to hate each other. This message is engrained into both Israeli and Arab society through a myriad of messages communicated through pop culture, propaganda, education and news media. News outlets play a significant role in shaping public opinion by applying media frames, which use tools such as language, style, structure and images to influence public perception. The tension between Arabs and Jews, particularly the relationship between the State of Israel and the State of Palestine, is sustained and fueled by print media content that perpetuates stereotypes using media frames that demonize and dehumanize the “Other.”
Much research has been conducted in the field of communications studies in regards to the Palestinian- Israeli conflict. Much of this research, however, has either been focused on the use of media framing in mainstream American media, or on the Israeli-Jewish perspective of Arabs. This study hopes to fill a gap in existing literature by examining primary sources from Palestinian media to assess the Palestinian-Arab perspective of Israeli-Jews.
This study focuses on major stereotypes that shape the Palestinian view of Israeli-Jews. Media frames employed in online Palestinian news content, such as editorials, opinion pieces and news analysis articles, were examined to draw connections between Arab stereotypes of Israeli-Jews in the present literature and actual stereotypes in the present conflict. The author analyzed content from three significant Palestinian news sources. She assumed that views expressed in these sources indicate the broader Arab dialogue on the Palestinian issue, and that the content examined does in fact reinforce a stereotype and mentality that demonizes and dehumanizes the Israeli-Jew as “the Other,” ultimately fueling the conflict and straining peacemaking efforts.
Massive amounts of literature on the Israeli-Palestinian conflict exist across a wide range of disciplines. As this study pertains to stereotypes in Israeli-Palestinian culture, the representation of the “Other,” and media framing, this review focused on these three areas that emerged repeatedly throughout the literature reviewed. An understanding of the existing stereotypes held by Palestinian-Arabs, how and why these stereotypes were formed, as well as how the media perpetuate these stereotypes, would provide background, depth and greater understanding of a deeply rooted conflict.
The stereotypes that emerge in the Israeli-Palestinian conflict are a microcosm for similar stereotypes that are prevalent in the broader clash between Israeli-Jews and Arabs. While the stereotypes held by each side differ, Shipler shows how the stereotypes are ironically similar: Both sides demonize the other as grossly violent. Both Israeli-Jews and Arabs are fighting for the right to claim the role of true victim. And in order to be a victim, Shipler says, “You have to create a picture of the enemy as a huge monster.”1 These stereotypes portraying Israeli-Jews and Arabs have four roots of origin, according to Shipler: (1) the relationship of power, in which Jews hold the upper hand over the minority Arabs in Jewish occupied territories; (2) prejudices visible in classic racism worldwide; (3) traditional anti-Semitism, stemming from Christian Europe; and lastly, (4) the legacy of war and terrorism that has engraved both sides with a sense of mutual fear and contempt.2
The remainder of this section of the literature review will discuss predominant stereotypes that influence Arabs’ perception of Israeli-Jews. An understanding of these stereotypes greatly aided this research by hinting what topics had the potential to emerge as media frames because of these stereotypes.
In the Arab world, Shipler notes that stereotypes of Israeli-Jewish violence are often based on real events associated with the Israeli army; in turn, Arabs tend to use the Israeli army as a representation for all Jews. The government in East Jerusalem meticulously monitors Arabic-language newspapers and magazines for any hint of anti-Israeli rhetoric, but beyond the Israeli government’s reach, vehement rhetoric is prolific. It is strongest in areas outside of Israeli jurisdiction; it varies in the attitudes of Arabs living under Israeli occupation; and it is weakest among Israeli-Arabs who are citizens of the State of Israel and often work for Jewish employers.3
Loaded language in Arab media often demonizes Israeli-Jews, not just in news stories, but also in schoolbooks. Palestinian textbooks, which rarely refer to Israelis as “Israelis,” romanticize Palestine and cast the Jewish state as a land of “Zionists,” an ugly term that implies aggression and strips the Jewish people, rhetorically at least, of any legitimate claim to the land.4 The stereotypical view of the Zionist is one of exaggerated aggression, a classic example being the fear of Zionist expansion from “the Nile to the Euphrates,” made infamous in a declaration by Nasser in 1959. These stereotypes are often reinforced in Arab textbooks, which “glorify violence against the Zionist enemy.5
One study concluded that the majority of news content in Palestine is related to the Palestinian-Israeli conflict. It attributed the inclination to the conflict’s colossal impact on Palestinians’ everyday lives and to the constant stream of material the conflict offers to reporters. Palestinian media, Daraghmeh says, reflect an array of political opinions and interests, but they often border on extremism, giving exaggerated reports or repeating fundamentalist beliefs. He observes challenges facing Palestinian journalists: primarily, intense fear to report critically about Palestinian violence in a society that largely believes violence is a justified force. Lastly, he notes that media from each side focus largely on the number of dead the other side has caused them, leading the conflict to spiral downward from a political or territorial war into a war fueled by quasi-personal revenge.6
Seidel agrees that while conflict of religious interests may be a factor at play, he argues that the Israeli-Palestinian conflict is much more a secular conflict over territory.7 Another prevailing stereotype is to view Israeli-Jews as alien immigrants, outsiders and trespassers.8 In addition, Jews are often regarded as cold and inhospitable in contrast to traditional Arabs, which adds to tensions that are heightened by language differences and cultural ignorance. Although the trespasser viewpoint disregards Jews’ ancient ties to the Middle East, it draws on contempt for European Jews who are viewed as instruments of Westernization that contaminate Arab purity. Palestinian textbooks and newspapers became fond of the colonizer frame: “How could anyone regard them as rightful residents of the Middle East?” quipped Muham-mad Milhem, mayor of a West Bank village.9 Arab stereotypes of Israeli-Jews do draw on religious contention, which deplores contamination to the House of Islam: “Israel is the cancer, the malignant wound, in the body of Arabism, for which there is no cure but eradication,” declared a 1963 Cairo Radio report.10
There continues to be significant doubt that the Arab world will ever be able to recognize and tolerate Israel as an independent state. In a discussion at the National Committee on American Foreign Policy, several reasons were cited including religious obligation to uphold the House of Islam, opposition to democracy, enmity toward the West, Arabic honor culture, and a view of Israelis as invasive aliens, foreigners and colonizers. These viewpoints do not represent the entire Arab world, but may help shed light on how Arab media frame the Israeli-Palestinian conflict.11
Lastly, it should be noted that Israeli-Jews have their own stereotypes of Arabs. The most pervasive stereotype is the Arab as a cruel, violent figure of immense strength and subhuman nature.12 Researchers also conclude that the Israeli press is immensely biased. According to Ala Qeimari, the Israeli press is intent on promoting a higher national cause rather than assuming the principal functions of a free press. He found that stories from Jewish news often lacked adequate coverage of the occupied territories, emphasized acts of violence committed by Palestinians, and generated a public sentiment among Israeli citizens of paranoia, revenge and masochism.13 Of course, on both sides, it should be noted that these stereotypes are not universal, but they are present. Shipler elaborates that:
[T]hey are prevalent enough to infiltrate many levels of discourse, from the mundane conversation to the carefully constructed political analysis, from the graffiti on lavatory walls to the highest-ranking general’s testimony before a Knesset committee. Phrases, epithets, images flicker through the daily lives of Israeli-Jews like stray bullets that whistle and whine and wound.14
Because personal contact between Israeli-Jews and Arabs virtually disappeared when Israel became a state in 1948, the importance of media images is heightened in discussions about the Palestinian-Israeli conflict.15 One researcher argued “this kind of research is significant especially in Israel, since the Israeli media is almost the sole information source from which the Israeli population learns about … Arab groups.”16 Often times, media images generate massive stereotypes that are perpetuated by public discourse and groupthink, forming a conceptualization of the “Other” that is based on media images, and not necessarily on reality.
The concept of representation interests researchers, particularly those in the fields of culture and mass communication. Representation is a way that meaning and messages about the world are produced and exchanged to create an “imagined community,”17 which shapes the concept of class, ethnicity, race and nationality, often in an “us” and “them” context.18 Representation formulates not only identities of the self, but stereotypes of the “Other,” which “reduce people to a few, simple, essential characteristics, which are represented as fixed by nature.”19 Often, stereotyping is intensified when there are glaring inequalities of power.20 Intertwined in both the Israeli and the Palestinian narrative is the claim of being “the true victim.” This position is considered so compelling because the true victim is believed to have the right to be “righteously vengeful.”21 This makes it impossible to understand the Israeli-Palestinian conflict separated from the reality of the Holocaust.
In 1947, with sympathies fresh to the Jewish cause, the United Nations approved a partition of the Mandate of Palestine into two separate states: one Jewish and one Arab. The Israelis therefore coined 1948 as the War of Independence, while the Arabs called it al-Nakba, the disaster. Through the lens of Arabs’ traditional honor-shame culture, Israel’s gains are understood as a massive Arab loss—a loss conceded to a nation that Arabs had viewed as the weakest of all minorities for more than a century.22 Losing to an unworthy opponent causes great humiliation in an honor-shame culture and is the primary reason, Landes argues, that the Arab world refuses to acknowledge the existence of Israel. In short, “the war continues, the defeat goes unregistered, and the hope of restoring ‘face’ for the Arab world, continues to prevail.”23
Melanie Suchet addresses the role of the internal psyche on the Israeli-Palestinian conflict. She refers to the idea of “otherness” as anything that is not the same and is thus terrifying.24 Suchet, a Jewish therapist, working with Arat, an Arab patient, uses the scenario as a microcosm for the macro conflict of the Israeli-Palestinian conflict. She analyzes the ways that history imparts itself on personal identity, carrying with it the effect from what psychoanalysts call “traumatic memory.” This occurs when trauma experienced within a people group lingers in survivors and is unconsciously transmitted to following generations. She surmises that this impacts both Holocaust and al-Nabka survivors. In theory, a survival instinct and a fear of annihilation, stayed with the Jews after the Holocaust. The effect was so strong it is thought to have affected many of Israel’s decisions in what Suchet calls a “transfer of the Holocaust situation on to the Middle East reality.”25 Thus, the Zionist movement carried with it a dream to reinvent Jewish identity, to be cast in the opposite role of victims: the role of the powerful.
Those claiming citizenship in Israel had particularly intimate scars from the Holocaust: about one-third of Israelis at the end of 1949 were Holocaust survivors. For Palestinians, the victimization began with the partition of the Palestinian Mandate, which forced 711,000 Palestinian Arabs to flee their homes.26 Hence in the historical narrative of the Palestinians, Israelis were not victims to sympathize with, but the cause of great suffering. Lindholm-Schulz argues that the overarching trauma of the Palestinian “diasporisation” is the crucial commonality that links Palestinians together as they try to regain control over their own historical narrative.27
Pre-1948 Palestine, in fact, has been effectually erased with remarks such as Golda Meir’s infamous declaration in 1967 that “there is no such thing as a Palestinian.”28 Beverly Butler, quoting scholar Edward Said, asserts that it is precisely this urgent need to reclaim the past that drives the Palestinian cause.29 While both survivors of the Holocaust and displaced Palestinians have claims to exile status, it is, Said noted, “the Zionist identification with the ‘proverbial people of exile’ that has dominated archival discourse.”30 In the Israeli historical narrative the Nakba is the Palestinians’ problem: “part of ‘their’ story, a result of their own errors, missed opportunities and weakness.”31 Discounting the historical narrative of the “Other” encourages a focus on self and exacerbates the separation between the two cultures.Continued on Next Page »
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Butler, B. “‘Othering’ the archive - from exile to inclusion and heritage dignity: The case of Palestinian archival memory. Archival Science 9, no. 1-2. (2009): 57-69.
“Can Muslims Accept Israel in Their Midst?.” American Foreign Policy Interests 33, no. 4 (July 2011): 178-184.
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Cohen, Adoni, Bantz. Social Conflicts and Television News; A.A. Cohen, G. Wolfsfeld. Framing Intifada: People and Media. Norwood, NJ, 1993; Liebes. Reporting the Arab-Iraeli Conflict; Wolfsfeld. Media and Political Conflict.
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Daraghmeh, Mohammed. “Effects of the Conflict on the Palestinian Media.” Palestine-Israel Journal Of Politics, Economics & Culture 10, no. 2 (June 2003): 13.
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First, Anat. “Are They Still the Enemy? The Representation of Arabs in Israeli Television News.” In Jews, Muslims and Mass Media: Mediating the ‘Other.’ edited by Tudor Parfitt with Yulia Egorova. Routledgecurzon Jewish Studies Series of University of Kentucky, edited by Oliver Leaman (New York: Routledge-Curzon, 2004), 192.
Gordon, Neve. “A Villa in the Jungle: The Arab Awakening through the Lens of the Israeli Media.” Middle East Law & Governance 3, no. 1/2 (February 2011): 105-117.
Hall, S. “The Spectacle of the ‘Other’” in S. Hall, ed., Representation: Cultural Representation and Signifying Practices. London, 1997.
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Jeremy Ginges, et al. “Foreign Wars and Domestic Prejudice: How Media Exposure to the Israeli-Palestinian Conflict Predicts Ethnic Stereotyping by Jewish and Arab American Adolescents.” Journal Of Research On Adolescence (Wiley-Blackwell) 22, no. 3 (September 2012): 556-570.
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Landes, Richard. “Edward Said and the Culture of Honour and Shame: Orientalism and Our Misperceptions of the Arab-Israeli Conflict.” Israel Affairs 13, no. 4 (October 2007): 844-858.
Lindholm-Schulz, H. The Palestinian diaspora: formation of identities and politics of homeland. London: Routledge, 2003.
Qeimari, Ala. “Israeli Media: Serving the “Patriotic” Cause.” Palestine-Israel Journal Of Politics, Economics & Culture 10, no. 2 (June 2003): 23.
Ronen, Gil. “Report: Hamas and Fatah ‘Agree on Unity,’ Israel National News, http://www.israelnationalnews.com/News/News.aspx/175248#.UrIF2TnA5Hy (accessed on December 17, 2013).
Seidel, Timothy. “Development, Religion, and Modernity in Palestine-Israel Development, Religion, and Modernity in Palestine-Israel.” Cross Currents 62, no. 4 (December 2012): 424-441.
Shipler, David K. Arab and Jew: Wounded Spirits in a Promised Land. New York: Penguin Group, 2002.
Sloan, WM. David, and Lisa Mullikan Parcell. Media Bias: Finding It, Fixing It. Jefferson, NC: McFarland, 2002.
Suchet, Melanie. “Face to Face.” Psychoanalytic Dialogues 20, no. 2 (March 2010): 158-171.
Tuchman, Gaye. Making News: A Study in the Construction of Reality. New York: Free Press, 1978.
Appendix: List of News Accounts
Al Ghussain, Alia. “Israeli occupation leaves psychological not just physical scars.” The Electronic Intifada. September 11, 2013. http://electronicintifada.net/content/israeli-occupation-leaves-psychological-notjust- physical-scars/12759 (accessed November 13, 2013).
Al-Shabaka. “Analysis: Can Oslo’s failed aid model be laid to rest?” Ma’an News Agency. November 2, 2013. http://www.maannews.net/eng/ViewDetails.aspx?ID=643596 (accessed November 13, 2013).
Alsaafin, Linah. “Resist Israel’s unjust system, don’t operate within it.” The Electronic Intifada.” September 7, 2013. http://electronicintifada.net/content/resist-israels-unjust-system-dont-operate-within-it/12751 (accessed November 10, 2013).
Baroud, Ramzy. “Ramallah, Gaza and the Palestinian identity crisis.” Ma’an News Agency. September 14, 2013. http://www.maannews.net/eng/ViewDetails.aspx?ID=629688 (accessed November 13, 2013).
Collins, Dylan. “Six-year-old loses eye from bullets Israel promised to phase out.” The Electronic Intifada. October 7, 2013. http://electronicintifada.net/content/six-year-old-loses-eye-bullets-israel-promisedphase-out/12830 (accessed November 13, 2013).
Cook, Jonathon. “Even the World Bank Understands: Palestine is Being Disappeared.” The Palestinian Chronicle. October 17, 2013. http://www.palestinechronicle.com/even-the-world-bank-understandspalestine-is-being-disappeared/#.UoOo8znA5Hx (accessed November 13, 2013).
Cook, Jonathan. “Talking Nonsense about Apartheid: How Come Uri Avnery Knows So Little about Israel?” The Palestinian Chronicle. October 28, 2013. http://www.palestinechronicle.com/talking-nonsenseabout-apartheid-how-come-uri-avnery-knows-so-little-about-israel/#.Un5rBTnA5Hw (accessed November 13, 2013).
Cook, Jonathan. “Whatever Happened to Peace Talks? Israel Gets Building While Negotiations Go Nowhere.” The Palestinian Chronicle. October 31, 2013. http://www.palestinechronicle.com/whatever-happenedto-peace-talks-israel-gets-building-while-negotiations-go-nowhere/#.UoOnYjnA5Hx (accessed November 13, 2013).
Cotto, Joseph. “Israel and the Dangers of Ethnic Nationalism: An Interview with Jonathan Cook.” The Palestinian Chronicle. November 7, 2013. http://www.palestinechronicle.com/israel-and-the-dangers-ofethnic-nationalism-an-interview-with-jonathan-cook/#.UoOm_jnA5Hx (accessed November 13).
Forer, Richard. “A Jewish journey towards compassion in Israel-Palestine.” Ma’an News Agency. October 8, 2013. http://www.maannews.net/eng/ViewDetails.aspx?ID=636825 (accessed November 13, 2013).
Gordon, Neve. “High Court Rules: It is Impossible to Be Israeli.” The Palestinian Chronicle. October 21, 2013. http://www.palestinechronicle.com/high-court-rules-it-is-impossible-to-be-israeli/#.UoOouTnA5Hx (accessed November 13, 2013).
Hassan, Youssef Budour. “Israel’s killing of five young Palestinians exposes ‘peace’ talks as charade.” The Electronic Intifada. September 24, 2013. http://electronicintifada.net/content/israels-killing-five-youngpalestinians-exposes-peace-talks-charade/12797 (accessed November 13, 2013).
Hassan, Youssef Budour. “The second intifada put holes in Israel’s wall of fear.” The Electronic Intifada. October 4, 2013. http://electronicintifada.net/content/second-intifada-put-holes-israels-wall-fear/12826 (accessed November 13, 2013).
Kassis, Rifat Odeh. “Equal laws, discriminatory practice: the plight of Jerusalem children.” Ma’an News Agency. October 29, 2013. http://www.maannews.net/eng/ViewDetails.aspx?ID=642347 (accessed November 13, 2013).
Khalilieh, Suhail. “20 years of Oslo: Maybe the best thing to happen to Palestinians.” Ma’an News Agency. September 18, 2013. http://www.maannews.net/eng/ViewDetails.aspx?ID=631016 (accessed November 13, 2013).
Kuttab, Daoud. “Netanyahu attacks Iran rather than face the Palestinian issue.” Ma’an News Agency. October 3, 2013. http://www.maannews.net/eng/ViewDetails.aspx?ID=635574 (accessed November 13, 2013).
Kuttab, Daoud. “Jerusalem elections boycott sends ‘strong’ statement to Israel.” Ma’an News Agency. October 25, 2013. http://www.maannews.net/eng/ViewDetails.aspx?ID=641102 (accessed November 13, 2013).
Lahham, Nasser. “Editorial: Oslo is dead, long live Palestine.” Ma’an News Agency. September 14, 2013. http://www.maannews.net/eng/ViewDetails.aspx?ID=629718 (accessed November 13).
Louis, Zarah. “Containment of Holocaust Education: Lessons Unlearned.” The Palestinian Chronicle. October 25, 2013. http://www.palestinechronicle.com/containment-of-holocaust-education-lessons-unlearned/#. UoOoTznA5Hx (accessed November 13, 2013).
Nadim, Nashef. “Palestinian youth assert right of return with direct action.” The Electronic Intifada. September 11, 2013. http://electronicintifada.net/content/israeli-occupation-leaves-psychological-not-just-physical-scars/12759 (accessed November 13, 2013).
Nasser, Nicola. “Drying up Ideological Wellsprings of Arab-Israeli Conflict.” The Palestinian Chronicle. October 30, 2013. http://www.palestinechronicle.com/drying-up-ideological-wellsprings-of-arab-israeli-conflict/#. UoOnyznA5Hx (accessed November 13, 2013).
Qumsiyeh, Mazin. “Palestinians do have options for change and resistance.” Ma’an News Agency. October 6, 2013. http://www.maannews.net/eng/ViewDetails.aspx?ID=636397 (accessed November 13, 2013).
Pappe, Iian. “Reclaiming Judaism from Zionism.” The Electronic Intifada. October 18, 2013. http://electronicintifada.net/content/reclaiming-judaism-zionism/12859 (accessed November 13, 2013).
Persson, Anders. “New EU settlements guidelines already biting.” Ma’an News Agency. September 10, 2013. http://www.maannews.net/eng/ViewDetails.aspx?ID=637350 (accessed November 13).
Sheen, David. “Video: Israeli crowd cheers as Africans called ‘slaves.’” The Electronic Intifada. October 8, 2013. http://electronicintifada.net/content/video-israeli-crowd-cheers-africans-called-slaves/12833 (accessed November 13, 2013).
Strickland, Patrick O. “We’ll never forget October 1956 massacre, say Palestinians in Israel.” The Electronic Intifada. October 29, 2013. http://electronicintifada.net/content/well-never-forget-october-1956-massacre-say-palestinians-israel/12883 (accessed November 13).
Strickland, Patrick O. “Palestinian lawyer faces Israeli jail for ‘organizing demonstrations.’” The Electronic Intifada. October 31, 2013. http://electronicintifada.net/content/palestinian-lawyer-faces-israeli-jailorganizing-demonstrations/12886 (accessed November 13, 2013).
Vlazna, Vacy. “The Gatekeepers: Locking in Palestinians as Terrorists.” The Palestinian Chronicle. October 4, 2013. http://www.palestinechronicle.com/the-gatekeepers-locking-in-palestinians-as-terrorists/#. UoOpdDnA5Hx (accessed November 13, 2013).
Vlazna, Vacy. “Israelis Turning Blood into Money: The Lab Review.” The Palestinian Chronicle. October 16, 2013. http://www.palestinechronicle.com/israelis-turning-blood-into-money-the-lab-review/#.UoOpNDnA5Hx (accessed November 13, 2013).
Whitbeck, John V. “Palestine: Give Democracy A Chance.” The Palestinian Chronicle. September 24, 2013. http://www.palestinechronicle.com/palestine-give-democracy-a-chance/#.UoOp8jnA5Hx
Endnotes
- David Shipler, Arab and Jew: Wounded Spirits in a Promised Land (London: Times Books, 1986), 166.
- Ibid., 165-166.
- Ibid., 184.
- Ibid., 186.
- Ibid., 187.
- Mohammed Daraghmeh, “Effects of the Conflict on the Palestinian Media,” Palestine-Israel Journal Of Politics, Economics & Culture 10.2 (June 2003).
- Timothy Siedel, “Development, Religion, and Modernity in Palestine-Israel Development, Religion, and Modernity in Palestine-Israel,” Cross Currents 62.4 (December 2012): 424-441.
- Shipler, Arab and Jew, 232.
- Ibid., 233.
- Ibid., 231.
- "Can Muslims Accept Israel in Their Midst?" American Foreign Policy Interests 33.4 (July 2011): 178-184.
- Shipler, Arab and Jew, 165-231.
- Ala Qeimari, “Israeli Media: Serving the ‘Patriotic’ Cause,” Palestine-Israel Journal Of Politics, Economics & Culture 10.2 (June 2003): 23.
- Shipler, Arab and Jew, 228.
- Ibid., 170.
- Anat First, “Are They Still the Enemy? The Representation of Arabs in Israeli Television News,” in Jews, Muslims and Mass Media: Mediating the ‘Other,’ ed. Tudor Parfitt with Yulia Egorova, (New York, 2004), 190..
- B. Anderson, Imagined Communities (London: Verso, 1991).
- First, Are They Still the Enemy?, 190.
- Stuart Hall, “The Spectacle of the ‘Other,’” in Representation: Cultural Representation and Signifying Practices, ed. Stuart Hall (London: Sage Publications, 1994), 267.
- Ibid.
- Melanie Suchet, “Face to Face,” Psychoanalytic Dialogues 20.2 (March 2010): 158-171.
- Richard Landes, “Edward Said and the Culture of Honour and Shame: Orientalism and Our Misperceptions of the Arab-Israeli Conflict,” Israel Affairs 13.4 (October 2007): 844-858.
- Ibid.
- Suchet, “Face to Face,” 164.
- Ibid., 165.
- Ibid., 164.
- H. Lindholm-Schulz, The Palestinian diaspora: formation of identities and politics of homeland (London:Routledge, 2003).
- Beverley Butler,”’Othering’ the archive - from exile to inclusion and heritage dignity: the case of Palestinian archival memory,” Archival Science 9.1 (2009), p. 64.
- Ibid., 60.
- Ibid., 61.
- Ariella Azoulay, Aliniut mekhonenet 1947-1950: Geneologiyah hazulit shelmishtar ve-kafikhat ha-ason le- ”ason mi-nekudat mabatam” (Tel Aviv, 2009).
- Cohen, Adoni, Bantz, Social Conflicts and Television News; A.A. Cohen, G. Wolfsfeld, Framing Intifada: People and Media, Norwood, NJ, 1993; Liebes, Reporting the Arab-Iraeli Conflict; Wolfsfeld, Media and Political Conflict.
- E. Avraham, Media and Social Construction of Reality: The Coverage of Settlements in Marginal Areas in National Newspapers, Thesis accepted for the Doctor of Philosophy degree (Jerusalem: Hebrew University, 1998).
- Robert M. Entman, “Framing Bias: Media in the Distribution of Power.” Journal Of Communication 57.1 (March 2007): 163-173.
- First, “Are They Still the Enemy?,” 209.
- Gaye Tuchman, Making News: A Study in the Construction of Reality (New York: Free Press, 1978), 193.
- Neve Gordon, “A Villa in the Jungle: The Arab Awakening through the Lens of the Israeli Media,” Middle East Law & Governance (February 2011): 105-117.
- Shamir Herzog, ‘Negotiated Society? Media Discourse on Israeli Jewish/Arab Relations’ Israel Social Science Review, 9.18 (1994) 55-88.
- First, “Are They Still the Enemy?” 195.
- Matt Evans, “Framing International Conflicts: Media coverage of fighting in the Middle East,” International Journal Of Media & Cultural Politics 6.2 (September 2010): 209-233.
- Ibid.
- Jeremy Ginges, et al. “Foreign Wars and Domestic Prejudice: How Media Exposure to the Israeli-Palestinian Conflict Predicts Ethnic Stereotyping by Jewish and Arab American Adolescents,” Journal Of Research On Adolescence (Wiley-Blackwell) 22.3 (September 2012): 556-570.
- Ibid., 560.
- “About Electronic Intifada,” Electronic Intifada About Page, http://electronicintifada.net/about-ei (November 7, 2013).
- WM. David Sloan, and Lisa Mullikan Parcell, Media Bias: Finding It, Fixing It, (Jefferson, NC: McFarland, 2002), 14.
- Ibid.
- Gil Ronen, “Report: Hamas and Fatah ‘Agree on Unity,’ Israel National News, http://www.israelnationalnews. com/News/News.aspx/175248#.UrIF2TnA5Hy (December 17, 2013).
- “About Us Ma’an News Agency,” Ma’an News Agency About Us Page. http://www.maannews.net/eng/View-Content.aspx?PAGE=AboutUs (November 7, 2013).
- “Danida,” Ministry of Foreign Affairs Denmark, http://ramallah.um.dk/en/danida-en/ (December 18, 2013).
- “About Palestinian Chronicle,” The Palestinian Chronicle About Page, http://www.palestinechronicle.com/about/ (November 7, 2013).
- Ibid.
- Ibid.
- Siedel, “Development, Religion, and Modernity,” 424-441.
- Jonathan Cook, “Whatever Happened to Peace Talks? Israel Gets Building While Negotiations Go Nowhere,” The Palestinian Chronicle, October 31, 2013.
- Rifat Odeh Kassis, “Equal laws, discriminatory practice: the plight of Jerusalem children,” Ma’an News Agency, October 29, 2013.
- Joseph Cotto,“Israel and the Dangers of Ethnic Nationalism: An Interview with Jonathan Cook,” The Palestinian Chronicle, November 7, 2013.
- Alia Al Ghussain, “Israeli occupation leaves psychological not just physical scars,” The Electronic Intifada, September 11, 2013.
- Jonathan Cook, “Talking Nonsense about Apartheid: How Come Uri Avnery Knows So Little about Israel?” The Palestinian Chronicle, October 28, 2013.
- Vacy Vlazna, “The Gatekeepers: Locking in Palestinians as Terrorists,” The Palestinian Chronicle, October 4, 2013.
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- Vacy Vlazna, “Israelis Turning Blood into Money: The Lab Review,” The Palestinian Chronicle, October 16, 2013.
- Iian Pappe, “Reclaiming Judaism from Zionism,” The Electronic Intifada, October 18, 2013.
- Dylan Collins, “Six-year-old loses eye from bullets Israel promised to phase out,” The Electronic Intifada, October 7, 2013.
- S. Hall, ‘The Spectacle of the “Other”’ in S. Hall, ed., Representation, p. 257
- Rifat Odeh Kassis, “Equal laws, discriminatory practice: the plight of Jerusalem children,” Ma’an News Agency, October 29, 2013.
- Ramzy Baroud, “Ramallah, Gaza and the Palestinian identity crisis,” Ma’an News Agency, September 14, 2013.
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- Shipler, Arab and Jew, 166.
- David Sheen, “Video: Israeli crowd cheers as Africans called ‘slaves,’” The Electronic Intifada, October 8, 2013.
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- Vacy Vlazna, “The Gatekeepers: Locking in Palestinians as Terrorists,” The Palestinian Chronicle, October 4, 2013.
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APA 6th
Steele, K. (2014). "Palestinian-Arab Media Frames and Stereotypes of Israeli-Jews." Elon Journal of Undergraduate Research in Communications, 5(1). Retrieved from http://www.inquiriesjournal.com/a?id=972
MLA
Steele, Katy. "Palestinian-Arab Media Frames and Stereotypes of Israeli-Jews." Elon Journal of Undergraduate Research in Communications 5.1 (2014). <http://www.inquiriesjournal.com/a?id=972>
Chicago 16th
Steele, Katy. 2014. Palestinian-Arab Media Frames and Stereotypes of Israeli-Jews. Elon Journal of Undergraduate Research in Communications 5 (1), http://www.inquiriesjournal.com/a?id=972
Harvard
STEELE, K. 2014. Palestinian-Arab Media Frames and Stereotypes of Israeli-Jews. Elon Journal of Undergraduate Research in Communications [Online], 5. Available: http://www.inquiriesjournal.com/a?id=972
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