The End of Multiculturalism? Immigration and Integration in Germany and the United Kingdom

Conclusions: multicultural society as the clashes of interests

The problem which one can find striking about multiculturalism debates presented in this thesis is the fact that at the heart of modern ethnically diverse societies such as Germany and the United Kingdom lie seemingly irreconcilable clashes of interests of various parties with differing wishes. Social tensions and clashes of different groups are of course an indispensable part of every society, however there can be observed peculiar patterns of interest clashes in regard to multicultural societies. Hence, based on the above provided overview of multicultural histories and debates in these countries, three main interest groups may be distinguished: immigrants, natives and states.

Firstly, there are ethnic minorities and immigrants who have arrived and settled since the post-war decades. Today they make up on average around 10% of German and British population. In both countries majority of them represents non-European traditions, mainly connected to Islam. In a nutshell, their interests refer to equal rights with native citizens. To understand their claims it would be worth mentioning a non-European perspective.

It seems that those who oppose to migration inflows to Europe in general often fall into a trap of West-centrism, a notion of a supposed uniqueness and cultural and political superiority of the West civilisation. This notion argues that democracy, humanism, scientific rationality, freedom and human rights all uniquely belong to the West. They have all emerged as a result of heritage of ancient Greece and Rome, Christianity, Renaissance and the Enlightenment and finally as a fruit of industrial revolution and democratic movements. In fact, this standpoint ignores the profound achievements of other cultures and civilizations, such as for example Chinese, Indian and Turkish cultures (that are largely represented among minorities), which have been far in advance of anything in the West for ages. Thus, ethnic minorities definitely cannot be marginalized or perceived as a threat to European cultural achievements. Immigrants and people with a migration background should have the same right to live in with dignity and to cultivate their own cultural and religious traditions. In terms of human rights, they can also freely create housing communities and get the welfare support in the countries in which they have been allowed to stay. Their cultural practices are equally valuable as culture of host societies as long as they do not violate basic human rights which are internationally recognized.

Secondly, there are native societies with their interests relating to the notion of a homogenous nation. In both Germany and Britain the concept of citizenship has been largely based on nationhood. Additionally, after the World War II there was a widespread misconception of these countries being one-nation state. Cultural pluralism and religious diversity in particular brought by immigrants from other continents have been greeted with increasingly unfavourable public sentiments. Throughout decades there was only a marginal public endorsement of foreign influxes. It is reflected in numerous public researches that majority of citizens feel threatened by the ethnic ghettos and diverse worldviews brought by immigrants, which sometimes seem to be at odds with set of values declared in liberal democracies. Most of the natives find few of the groups unwilling to integrate and become a part of a broad society. In both Germany and Britain, there is a growing recognition that social benefits are unevenly spread, with the advantage of immigration communities. Some more radical circles represented by right wing politicians even argue that they should not belong to their nations as their ethnical roots differ. An example of such political opinions can be British National Party (BNP) in the UK and National Democratic Party of Germany (Nationaldemokratische Partei Deutschlands – NPD) in Germany.

But apart from the radical nationalistic movements, some of the social anxieties about the massive immigration seem to be more than just ethnic and religious prejudices. The question remains which practises should be accepted in the name of tolerance and equality and which should be banned as violating human rights. For instance, this dilemma was the centre of a recent lively debate in Germany on Muslim and Jewish ritual practise of male circumcision. Should it be allowed in the name of religious freedom or rather banned as inflicting bodily harm to a child? Besides, it is still unsettled what kind of patriotic attachment and national feelings, if any, should be expected from the immigrants who want to settle and become citizens. Finally, the so called ‘Muslim question’ leaves it inconclusive in what way Islam might be a religion inextricably connected to sharia law which appears to be contrary to democratic secular legislation systems.

Last but not least, there are states of the receiving societies. Germany and UK have their own economic interests and labour market capacity as well as limited welfare system. The states have their types of wanted and unwanted immigrants. The ideal immigrant for the state is a young, highly qualified and skilled in a relevant field individual or, alternatively, an investor with both financial and business capital who is able to create job positions and contribute to the stimulation of the economic growth. Other wanted immigrants are international students as well as scientists and researchers – mostly those of technological fields that can transfer their findings into practise and increase the country’s competitiveness. Additionally, all types of ideal immigrants should be adaptable and culturally close to the host society and ready to return to the countries of their origin as soon as there is no economic need for their skills on the labour market. The least desirable migrants, on the other hand, are asylum-seekers. Majority of asylum applications have been rejected in both countries. They are perceived as the group with the highest risk of being socially dependent with low adaptability and employability skills.

Those three different interest parties have been in a dynamic and multi-faceted relation throughout more than a half of the century. They themselves have been heterogeneous and included a variety of groups and movements. After World War II Britain experienced massive migration inflow from its colonies, while Germany, undergoing a fast economic growth, recruited workforce from abroad. Both countries were socially and politically unprepared for new residents from non-Western areas. They had to grapple with discrimination, racism and inequality in opportunities. The process of formation of the multicultural societies has been strained and resulted in serious anxieties whether the principle of ethnic diversity which has been somewhat unwittingly chosen is safe.

What comes next?

Multiculturalism as an ideology or a political doctrine may be indeed dead, as some commentators and researchers suggest. The movement forward from multiculturalism as the idea of a diverse society in which every community is perceived as equal yet separate is now a fact. Although it appears problematic to clearly reconcile the argument whether multicultural policies contribute to the threat of terrorism, it is undisputed that they have created a space for radicalisation of certain religious minorities. The Salman Rushdie affair also known as The Satanic Verses controversy, the murder of the filmmaker Theo van Gogh by a Muslim extremist, London terrorist bombings and Muhammad cartoons controversy in Denmark have been some of the best recognized flashpoints revealing a series of doubts over the idea of a multicultural Europe. In the case of Germany, on the other hand, ‘multikulti’ has never been an influential ideology and it was lack of immigration recognition that led to multiculturalism in the descriptive sense, that is, a high number of population with an immigration background.

The glory days of multiculturalism as a term are probably over at least in the European context. It would be a mistake to underrate the backlash against multiculturalism and its repercussions. General top-down support for equal opportunities for minorities will likely be maintained. But the ideology of ‘multiculturalism’ has too negative connotations relating to the failure of creating a peaceful ethnically plural society with no enough emphasis on the common cultural basis.

One may ask, how then a common cultural basis is possible in the case of the societies where different parallel cultures exist having apparently little in common. What first comes to mind when a phrase ‘common values’ is addressed against the multicultural background is mostly terms of ‘integration’ (used mostly in Germany) and ‘community cohesion’ (peculiar for Britain). Both concepts imply measures which aim at creating a shared vision and a sense of belonging as well as developing strong and positive relationships between people with different ethnic backgrounds in schools, neighbourhoods and workplace. The measures include such initiatives as bridge-building interreligious projects, workshops for school children from different ethnical profiles organised by the local councils and organisations in the UK. Germany’s policies for immigrants emphasise the advantages of publicly supported language and socio-cultural courses for migrants. As Gary Freeman notices, “there is now a clear trend toward a middling from incorporation – call it integration – that rejects permanent exclusion but neither demands assimilation nor embraces formal multiculturalism.”144The move from multiculturalism is thus not away from it but beyond it into other forms of what may be called ‘interculturalism’.

It seems that the term ‘interculturalism’ has been slowly replacing multiculturalism in many debates on cultural diversity. The key point is that instead of celebrating diversity and emphasizing the differences between cultures represented by minorities and a dominant culture, what is promoted here is encouragement of intercultural dialogue. Within the multiculturalism there was also a space for the dialogue but it was not enough stressed. What differentiates interculturalism from multiculturalism is that it avoids a tendency of treating non-Western cultures as totally separate from the West. Instead, interculturalism recognizes that cultures are historically and contemporarily connected. This conception indirectly relates to the phenomenon of the so-called trans-cultural diffusion, where cultural items such as innovations, religions, values, social institutions are adopted from one culture to another. Even if the connection is small or does not exist there are still shared axiological norms and other parallelisms which have developed independently from each other in different regions. The idea of interculturalism acknowledges the contribution of non-Western cultures as well as postulate understanding of how various conceptions (of freedom, tolerance, social order, rationality etc.) have developed across the globe.

The concept of interculturalism or – as some researchers call it – ‘superdiversity’ is just one possible path of approaching ethnically plural societies – which will likely replace multiculturalism but not necessarily. However, it is clear that in today’s globalised world ethno-cultural diversity is unavoidable. The migration inflows in the second half of the 20th century to Germany and Great Britain, as has been demonstrated, have changed their faces. Despite of the lack of wholly public endorsement to the multiethnic character of their societies, migration was and still is a vital factor shaping their societies and economies. What is more, it will probably be increasingly intense in the future given such phenomena as labour demands of new knowledge economy, decreasing birth rates among native citizens and free labour mobility of the expanding European Union.

---

References

Algan Y., Dustmann C., Glitz A. and Manning A. (2010) ‘The Economic Situation of First and Second-Generation Immigrants in France, Germany and the United Kingdom’, The Economic Journal, 120/2010 (http://www.ucl.ac.uk/~uctpb21/Cpapers/AlganDustmannGlitzManning2010.pdf – accessed 10.08.2012).

Amt für Statistik Berlin-Brandenburg (2011) Wer sind und wo leben die Zuwanderer in Berlin? Einwohnerinnen und Einwohner mit Migrationshintergrund. Pressegespräch 30.03.2011, Berlin.

‘Ausländer: Harte Politik’ Der Spiegel, 17.09.1984 (http://www.spiegel.de/spiegel/print/d-13511457.html – accessed 20.06.2012.

BBC News UK Politics (2012) ‘Stop ignoring immigration, Soames urges MP colleagues’, BBC, 6.09.2012 (http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-politics-19492300 – accessed 12.10.2012).

Brown M. (2012) ‘Cutting Immigration is Ludicrous, says Labour’, Express, 2.10.2012 (http://www.express.co.uk/posts/view/349492/Cutting-immigration-is-ludicrous-says-Labour – accessed 12.10.2012).

Bundesagentur für Arbeit (2012) Analyse des Arbeitsmarktes für Ausländer März 2012, Nürnberg (http://statistik.arbeitsagentur.de/Statischer-Content/Statistische-Analysen/Analytikreports/Zentrale-Analytikreports/Monatliche-Analytikreports/Generische-Publikationen/Analyse-Arbeitsmarkt-Auslaender/Analyse-Arbeitsmarkt-Auslaender-201203.pdf – accessed 12.10.2012).

Bundesamt für Migration und Flüchtlinge (2012) Aktulle Zahlen zu Asyl. Ausgabe: Oktober 2012.

Bundesamt für Migration und Flüchtlinge (2012) Zügig nach Deutschland? Ein Jahr uneingeschränkte Freizügigkeit für Migranten aus den EU-8 Ländern (22.05.2012), Jahresrückblick.

Bundeszentrale für politische Bildung (2012) Deutschland: Deutlich mehr Einwanderer (http://www.bpb.de/gesellschaft/migration/dossier-migration/138264/deutlich-mehr-einwanderer – accessed 20.06.2012).

Butt R. (2009) ‘Muslims in Britain have zero tolerance of homosexuality, says poll’, The Guardian, 7.05.2009 (http://www.guardian.co.uk/uk/2009/may/07/muslims-britain-france-germany-homosexuality – accessed 12.10.2012).

Cameron D. (2011) ‘MP’s speech at Munich Security Conference’ delivered on 5th February 2011 (http://www.number10.gov.uk/news/pms-speech-at-munich-security-conference/ - accessed 10.08.2012).

Castles S. (1985) ‘The guest who stayed: The debate on foreigners policy in the German Federal Republic’, International Migration Review Vol. 19, No. 3.

Centre for Economic Performance (2010) Election Analysis: Immigration and the UK Labour Market: The Evidence from Economic Research. London (http://cep.lse.ac.uk/pubs/download/ea006.pdf – accessed 12.10.2012).

Choudhury T. ‘Evolving Models of Multiculturalism in the United Kingdom’, in Emerson M., ed., Interculturalism. Europe and Its Muslims in Search of Sound Societal Models. Brussels: Centre for European Policy Studies.

Choudhury T. and Fenwick H. (2011) The impact of counter-terrorism measures on Muslim communities. Manchester: Equality and Human Rights Commission, Research report 72 (http://www.equalityhumanrights.com/uploaded_files/research/counter-terrorism_research_report_72.pdf – accessed 12.11.2012).

Consumerfieldwork (2010) Presseinformation: Meinungsumfrage zur Buchveröffentlichung von Thilo Sarrazin, 3.09.2010 (http://www.consumerfieldwork.de/pressemitteilung-sarrazin-umfrage.htm?gclid=CNDx0f-S7qMCFRCPzAodtDE42A – accessed 12.10.2012).

Davies L. (2012) ‘Children from immigrant families 'face significant challenges' in UK schools’, The Guardian, 11.09.2012 (http://www.guardian.co.uk/education/2012/sep/11/children-immigrant-families-uk-schools – accessed 12.10.2012).

‘De Maizière: 10 bis 15 Prozent integrationsunwillige Ausländer’, Der Tagesspiegel, 08.09.2010 (http://www.tagesspiegel.de/politik/kabinett-de-maiziere-10-bis-15-prozent-integrationsunwillige-auslaender/1928570.html – accessed 12.10.2012).

Delgado-Moreira J. (2000) Multicultural Citizenship of the European Union. Aldershot: Ashgate.

Department for Education (2012) Consultation on Revision of The Education (Independent School Standards (http://dera.ioe.ac.uk/14207/ – accessed 12.10.2012).

Easton M. (2012) ‘Why are we so concerned about immigration’, BBC News, March 2012 (http://www.bbc.co.uk/blogs/thereporters/markeaston/2011/02/why_are_we_so_concerned_about_im.html – accessed 12.10.2012).

Enoch Powell (1968) ‘Rivers of Blood’ speech delivered on 20th April 1968 (http://www.telegraph.co.uk/comment/3643823/Enoch-Powells-Rivers-of-Blood-speech.html – accessed 12.10.2012).

Favell A. (1998) ‘Multicultural Race Relations in Britain: Problems of Interpretation and Explanation’, in Joppke C., ed. Challenge to the Nation-State. Immigration in Western Europe and the United States. Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 319-350.

Favell A. (1998) Philosophies of Integration: Immigration and the Idea of Citizenship in France and Britain. Hampshire/New York: Palgrave Macmillan.

Filsinger D. (2008) Bedingungen erfolgreicher Integration – Integrationsmonitoring und Evaluation. Bonn: Friedrich Ebert Stiftung.

Grillo R. (2010) ‘British and others: From ‘race’ to ‘faith’’, in Vertovec S., Wessendorf S., ed. The Multiculturalism Backlash: European Discourses, Policies and Practices. London/New York: Routledge, pp. 50-71.

Hamburg Institute of International Economics (2007) ‘Germany: Country profile’, Focus MIGRATION, May 2007 (http://focus-migration.hwwi.de/typo3_upload/groups/3/focus_Migration_Publikationen/Laenderprofile/CP01_Germany_v2.pdf – accessed 20.06.2012).

Hampshire J. (2009) Immigration Policy In The United Kingdom, Sussex Centre for Migration Research (http://migrationeducation.de/49.0.html – accessed 12.10.2012).

Hansen R. (2000) Citizenship and Immigration in Post-war Britain. The institutional Origins of a Multicultural Nation. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Harrison D. (2006) ‘Government policy on multiculturalism has been left in tatters’, The Telegraph, 8.09.2006 (http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/1530876/Government-policy-on-multiculturalism-has-been-left-in-tatters.html – accessed 12.10.2012).

Heckmann F. (2003) ‘From Ethnic Nation to Universalistic Immigrant Integration: Germany’, in Heckmann F., Schnapper D., ed. The integration of Immigrants in European Societies. Stuttgart: Lucius & Lucius Verlagsgesellschaft mbH, pp. 45-78.

Helmut R. (2007) ‘Schüler besuchen den Islam-Unterricht mit Begeisterung’, interview byDer Spiegel, 20.03.2007 (http://www.spiegel.de/politik/deutschland/baden-wuerttemberg-schueler-besuchen-den-islam-unterricht-mit-begeisterung-a-472796.html – accessed September 2012).

Hennessy P. and Kite M. ‘Poll reveals 40pc of Muslims want sharia law in UK’, The Telegraph, 19.02.2006 (http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/1510866/Poll-reveals-40pc-of-Muslims-want-sharia-law-in-UK.html – accessed 12.10.2012).

Hoehn C. (2000) Policy responses to population ageing and Population decline in Germany, UN/POP/PRA/2000/6 (http://www.un.org/esa/population/publications/popdecline/hohn.pdf – accessed 20.06.2012).

Independent Commission on Migration to Germany (2001) Structuring Immigration - Fostering Integration, Berlin (http://www.bmi.bund.de/SharedDocs/Downloads/EN/Broschueren/Structuring_Immigation_-_Fostering_Id_14625_en.pdf?__blob=publicationFile – accessed 10.08.2012).

Infratest dimap (2011) EU-Arbeitnehmerfreizügigkeit. Ergebnisse einer repräsentativen Erhebung. Eine Studie im Auftrag von INITIATIVE MINDESTLOHN. Berlin, 14.08.2011.

Initiative Mindestlohn (2011) Der Mindestlohn... schützt Zugewanderte wie Einheimische (http://www.initiative-mindestlohn.de/argumente/eu-arbeitnehmerfreizuegigkeit/der-mindestlohn-schuetzt-zugewanderte-wie-einheimische/ – accessed 10.08.2012).

‘Institut: Deutschland braucht jährlich mindestens 300.000 Zuwanderer’, Sächsische Zeitung, 30.07.2012 (http://www.sz-online.de/nachrichten/artikel.asp?id=3119700 – accessed 12.10.2012).

‘Integration ist eine Bereicherung’ The Press and Information Office of the Federal German Government, 22.03.2012 (http://www.bundesregierung.de/Content/DE/Artikel/2012/03/2012-03-22-integrationsministerkonferenz.html – accessed 12.10.2012).

Joppke C. (1999) Immigration and the Nation-State: The United States, Germany, and Great Britain. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Kastoryano R. (2002) Negotiating Identities. States and Immigrants in France and Germany. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Princeton and Oxford.

Klingholz R. (2010) ‘Germany Needs More Foreigners’, Der Spiegel International, 30.08.2010 (http://www.spiegel.de/international/zeitgeist/immigration-debate-germany-needs-more-foreigners-a-714534.html – accessed 12.10.2012).

Kolb H. (2005) How successful was the German Green Card? Bonn: The Federal Agency for Civic Education (Bundeszentrale für politishe Bildung). (http://www.bpb.de/gesellschaft/migration/dossier-migration/58181/success – accessed 12.10.2012).

Kymlicka W. (2010) ‘The rise and fall of multiculturalism?: new debates on inclusion and accommodation in diverse societies’, in Vertovec S., Wessendorf S., ed. The Multiculturalism Backlash: European Discourses, Policies and Practices. London/New York: Routledge, pp. 32-49.

Lakotta B. (2008) German Schools Introduce Muslim Classes: 'Anyone Who Wants Integration Has to Provide Islam Instruction', Der Spiegel, 03.14.2008 (http://www.spiegel.de/international/germany/german-schools-introduce-muslim-classes-anyone-who-wants-integration-has-to-provide-islam-instruction-a-541440.html – accessed September 2012).

Lemos, S. and Portes J. (2008) The impact of migration from the new European Union Member States on native workers, London: Department for Work and Pensions (http://research.dwp.gov.uk/asd/asd5/wp52.pdf – accessed 12.10.2012).

Lentin A., Titley G. (2011) The Crises of Multiculturalism. London/New York: Zed Books.

M. Terwey and H. Baumann (2012) German General Social Survey. ALLBUS / GGSS Commutation 1980-2010, ZA Study No 4574, Electronic Data Handbook, Cologne: GESIS.

Maleiha M. (2010) ‘Progressive multiculturalism: the British experience’, in Silj A., ed. European Multiculturalism Revisited. London/New York: Zed Books, pp.11-64.

Malik K. ‘Multiculturalism fans the flames of Islamic extremism’, The Times, 16.07.2005(http://www.kenanmalik.com/essays/times_bombings.html – accessed 12.10.2012).

Merkel A. (2010) ‘Moscheen werden Teil unseres Stadtbildes sein’, interview by Frankfurter Allgemeine, 18.09.2010 (http://www.faz.net/aktuell/politik/inland/angela-merkel-im-f-a-z-gespraech-moscheen-werden-teil-unseres-stadtbildes-sein-11036846.html – accessed 12.10.2012).

Merkel erklärt Multikulti für gescheitert’, Der Spiegel.16.10.2010 (http://www.spiegel.de/politik/deutschland/integration-merkel-erklaert-multikulti-fuer-gescheitert-a-723532.html – accessed 12.10.2012).

Miles R and Cleary P. (1992) ‘Britain: Post-Colonial Migration in Context’, in Thränhardt D., ed. Europe – a New Immigration Continent. Policies and Politics in Comparative Perspective. Hamburg: Lit, pp. 121-144.

Modood T. and Salt J. (2011) ‘Global Migration, Ethnicity and Britishness’, in Modood T. and Salt J., ed. Global Migration, Ethnicity and Britishness. Hampshire: Palgvare Macmillan, pp. 248-268.

Moosavi L. (2012) ‘Muslims are well-integrated in Britain – but no one seems to believe it’, The Guardian, 3.07.2012 (http://www.guardian.co.uk/commentisfree/belief/2012/jul/03/muslims-integrated-britain – accessed 12.11.2012).

Öchsner T. (2011) ‘Neues Land, neues Glück’, Süddeutsche Zeitung, 29.12.2011 (http://www.sueddeutsche.de/wirtschaft/migranten-gruenden-mehr-unternehmen-neues-land-neues-glueck-1.1245975 – accessed 12.10.2012).

Office for National Statistics (ONS) (2011) Migration Statistics Quarterly Report. Polish People in the UK - Half a million Polish Residents, August 2011 (http://www.ons.gov.uk/ons/rel/migration1/migration-statistics-quarterly-report/august-2011/index.html – accessed 12.10.2012).

Paton G. (2012) ‘Private Muslim schools told to promote British values’, The Telegraph, 1.06.2012 (http://www.telegraph.co.uk/education/educationnews/9305957/Private-Muslim-schools-told-to-promote-British-values.html – accessed 12.10.2012).

Pew Global Attitudes Project (2011) Common Concerns About Islamic Extremism. Muslim-Western Tensions Persist, Washington: Pew Research Centre (http://pewglobal.org/files/2011/07/Pew-Global-Attitudes-Muslim-Western-Relations-FINAL-FOR-PRINT-July-21-2011.pdf– accessed 12.10.2012).

Pfaff W. (2005) ‘A monster of our own making’, The Guardian/The Observer, 21.08.2012 (http://www.guardian.co.uk/uk/2005/aug/21/july7.terrorism – accessed 12.10.2012).

Phillips M. ‘The Londonistan mindset’, New York Post, 4.06.2006 (http://www.melaniephillips.com/the-londonistan-mindset – accessed 12.11.2012).

Pommereau I. (2010) Why German public schools now teach Islam, The Christian Science Monitor, January 20, 2010 (http://www.csmonitor.com/World/Europe/2010/0120/Why-German-public-schools-now-teach-Islam – accessed 12.10.2012).

Pötzl N. Life in a Parallel Society. Der Spiegel International, 16.04.2008 (http://www.spiegel.de/international/europe/muslims-in-germany-life-in-a-parallel-society-a-547717.html – accessed 12.10.2012).

Preuß R. (2012) Deutschland erlebt größten Ausländerzuwachs seit 15 Jahren, Süddeutsche Zeitung, 04.04.2012 (http://www.sueddeutsche.de/politik/einwanderer-studie-des-statistischen-bundesamts-deutschland-erlebt-groessten-auslaender-zuwachs-seit-jahren-1.1326592 – accessed 20.06.2012).

Radchenko T. and Maehler D. (2010)Noch Ausländer oder schon Deutscher? Einflussfaktoren auf die Selbsteinschätzung und Fremdwahrnehmung von Migranten. Cologne: University of Cologne.

Rainer Brüderle (2011) ‘Wir brauchen Zuwanderer’, RP online, 20.04.2011(http://www.rp-online.de/politik/deutschland/wir-brauchen-zuwanderer-1.603407 – accessed 12.10.2012).

Rattansi A. (2011) Multiculturalism: A Very Short Introduction, Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Reed J. (2005) Young Muslims in the UK: Education and Integration. Institute for Public Policy Research, December 2005 (http://library.fes.de/pdf-files/bueros/london/03682.pdf – accessed 12.10.2012).

Rex J. (2003) ‘Integration Policy in Great Britain’, in Heckmann F., Schnapper D., ed. The integration of Immigrants in European Societies. Stuttgart: Lucius & Lucius Verlagsgesellschaft, pp. 79-104.

Rienzo C. (2012) Briefing: Migrants in the UK Labour Market: An Overview, Oxford: the Migration Observatory atthe University of Oxford, 28.08.2012 (http://www.migrationobservatory.ox.ac.uk/sites/files/migobs/Briefing%20-%20Migrants%20in%20the%20UK%20Labour%20Market_0.pdf – accessed 12.10.2012).

Riesen I. (2009) DerIW-Integrationsmonitor, Februar 2009, Cologne: Institut der deutschen Wirtschaft.

Schneider J. (2005) Integration. Bonn: The Federal Agency for Civic Education (Bundeszentrale für politishe Bildung). (http://www.bpb.de/gesellschaft/migration/dossier-migration/56404/integration?p=0 – accessed 20.06.2012).

Shepherd J. (2011) Headteacher expresses alarm over racial segregation in London schools, The Guardian, 4.10.2011 (http://www.guardian.co.uk/education/2011/oct/04/alarm-over-racial-segregation-london-schools – accessed 12.10.2012).

Statistisches Bundesamt (2011) Bevölkerung mit Migrationshintergrund – Ergebnisse des Mikrozensus 2010. Wiesbaden (http://de.statista.com/statistik/daten/studie/1221/umfrage/anzahl-der-auslaender-in-deutschland-nach-herkunftsland/ – accessed 20.06.2012).

Statistisches Bundesamt (2012) Anzahl der Ausländer in Deutschland nach Herkunftsland (Stand: 31. Dezember 2011) (http://de.statista.com/statistik/daten/studie/1221/umfrage/anzahl-der-auslaender-in-deutschland-nach-herkunftsland/ – accessed 20.06.2012).

The Migration Observatory (2012) Report: Britain’s ‘70 Million’ Debate: A Primer on Reducing Immigration to Manage Population Size, 6.09.2012. Oxford: University of Oxford (http://migrationobservatory.ox.ac.uk/sites/files/migobs/Report%20-%2070%20million%20debate.pdf – accessed 12.10.2012).

Thränhardt D. (1992) ‘Germany – an Undeclared Immigration Country’, in Thränhardt D., ed. Europe – a New Immigration Continent. Policies and Politics in Comparative Perspective. Hamburg: Lit, pp. 167-194

Travis A. (2012) ‘UK migrants to face 'patriotic' citizenship test’, The Guardian 1.07.2012 (http://www.guardian.co.uk/uk/2012/jul/01/uk-migrants-patriotic-citizenship-test – accessed 12.10.2012).

Uberoi V., Meer N. et. al. (2011) ‘Feeling and Being Muslim and British’ in Modood T. and Salt J., ed. Global Migration, Ethnicity and Britishness. Hampshire: Palgvare Macmillan, pp. 205-224.

Vargas-Silva C. (2011) Briefing: The Fiscal Impact of Immigration in the UK, Oxford: the Migration Observatory atthe University of Oxford, 20.03.2011 (http://www.migrationobservatory.ox.ac.uk/sites/files/migobs/briefing%20-%20the%20fiscal%20impacy%20of%20immigration%20in%20the%20uk.pdf – accessed 12.10.2012).

Vertovec S., Wessendorf S. (2010) ‘Introduction: assessing the backlash against multiculturalism in Europe’, in Vertovec S., Wessendorf S., ed. The Multiculturalism Backlash: European Discourses, Policies and Practices. London/New York: Routledge, pp. 1-31.

Wallop H. (2009) ‘Britons flee London to be replaced by immigrants’, The Telegraph, 4.01.2009 (http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/4109171/Britons-flee-London-to-be-replaced-by-immigrants.html – accessed 12.10.2012).

Watson C. W. (2000) Multiculturalism. Buckingham: Open University Press.

West P. (2005) The Poverty of Multiculturalism, Civitas (http://www.civitas.org.uk/pdf/cs46-1.pdf – accessed 12.10.2012).

Wilson G. (2012) ‘160,000 Brits lose jobs to migrants’, The Sun, 11.01.2012 (http://www.thesun.co.uk/sol/homepage/news/politics/4049864/160000-Brits-lose-jobs-to-migrants.html – accessed 12.10.2012).

Wöhrle C. (2009) Deutschland: Diskussion um Integrationsvertrag. Berlin: Netzwerk Migration in Europa (http://www.migration-info.de/mub_artikel.php?Id=091003 – accessed 12.10.2012).

Worbs S. (2007) ‘Parallelgesellschaften von Zuwanderern in Deutschland?’, Migration und ethnische Minderheiten 2007/1. Leibniz: Sozialwissenschaftlicher Fachinformationsdienst.

Wroe D. ‘The streets of Neukölln: Has integration failed?’ The Local, 16.09.2010 (http://www.thelocal.de/society/20100916-29851.html – accessed 12.10.2012).

Zimmermann K. and Barrett A. (2011) Study on Active Inclusion of Migrants. Final Report. Bonn/Dublin: Institute for the Study of Labor (IZA) and The Economic and Social Research Institute (ESRI).

‘Zuwanderung lässt Deutschlands Bevölkerung wachsen’, MIGAZIN, April 2012 (http://www.migazin.de/2012/04/30/zuwanderung-lasst-deutschlands-bevolkerung-wachsen/ – accessed 20.06.2012).

---

1.) Elliott A. and Lemert C. (2006) The New Individualism: The Emotional Costs of Globalization. London: Routledge, p. 137

2.) Cameron D., speech at Munich Security Conference delivered on 5 February 2011. (http://www.number10.gov.uk/news/pms-speech-at-munich-security-conference/ – accessed 12.10.2012).

3.) Other skeptical sentiments have been represented by Nikolas Sarkozy in France, Geert Wilders in the Netherlands, Jimmie Akesson in Sweden, the two latter have gained electoral by striking fears about multiculturalism, while Dutch government have decided to abandon a long-standing model of multiculturalism and shift priority to the values of its native people.

4.) Lentin A., Titley G. (2011) The Crises of Multiculturalism. London/New York: Zed Books, p. 11

5.) Maleiha M. (2010) ‘Progressive multiculturalism: the British experience’. in Silj A., ed. European Multiculturalism Revisited. London/New York: Zed Books , pp. 12-17

6.) Kymlicka W. (2010) ‘The rise and fall of multiculturalism?: new debates on inclusion and accommodation in diverse societies’, in Vertovec S., Wessendorf S., ed. The Multiculturalism Backlash: European Discourses, Policies and Practices. London/New York: Routledge, p. 33

7.) Kymlicka W. (2010) Op. Cit., pp. 37-38

8.) Vertovec S., Wessendorf S. (2010) ‘Introduction: assessing the backlash against multiculturalism in Europe’, in Vertovec S., Wessendorf S., ed. The Multiculturalism Backlash: European Discourses, Policies and Practices. London/New York: Routledge, p. 3

9.) Delgado-Moreira J. (2000) Multicultural Citizenship of the European Union. Aldershot: Ashgate, pp. 84-86

10.) Watson C. W. (2000) Multiculturalism. Buckingham: Open University Press, p. 19

11.) Rattansi A. (2011) Multiculturalism: A Very Short Introduction, Oxford: Oxford University Press, p. 27

12.) Rattansi A. (2011) Op. Cit., p. 36

13.) Watson C. W. (2000) Op. Cit. pp. 30, 31

14.) According to an official definition of “people with an migration background” they are people who immigrated into the present area of Federal Republic of Germany as well as all foreigners born in Germany and Germans who have at least one parent who immigrated to Germany or was born in Germany as foreigner.

15.) Statistisches Bundesamt (2011) Bevölkerung mit Migrationshintergrund – Ergebnisse des Mikrozensus 2010. Wiesbaden (http://de.statista.com/statistik/daten/studie/1221/umfrage/anzahl-der-auslaender-in-deutschland-nach-herkunftsland/ – accessed 20.06.2012).

16.) Heckmann F. (2003) ‘From Ethnic Nation to Universalistic Immigrant Integration: Germany’, in Heckmann F., Schnapper D., ed. The integration of Immigrants in European Societies. Stuttgart: Lucius & Lucius Verlagsgesellschaft mbH, p. 48

17.) Hamburg Institute of International Economics (2007) ‘Germany: Country profile’. Focus MIGRATION, May 2007 (http://focus-migration.hwwi.de/typo3_upload/groups/3/focus_Migration_Publikationen/Laenderprofile/CP01_Germany_v2.pdf – accessed 20.06.2012).

18.) Radchenko T. and Maehler D. (2010)Noch Ausländer oder schon Deutscher? Einflussfaktoren auf die Selbsteinschätzung und Fremdwahrnehmung von Migranten. Cologne: University of Cologne

19.) Schneider J. (2005) Integration. Bonn: The Federal Agency for Civic Education (Bundeszentrale für politishe Bildung). (http://www.bpb.de/gesellschaft/migration/dossier-migration/56404/integration?p=0 – accessed 20.06.2012).

20.) Schneider J. (2005) Op. Cit.

21.) Castles S. (1985) ‘The guest who stayed: The debate on foreigners policy in the German Federal Republic’, International Migration Review Vol. 19, No. 3, p. 519

22.) Heckmann F. (2003) Op. Cit. p. 51, 52

23.) Castles S. (1985) Op. Cit. p. 520-522

24.) ‘Ausländer: Harte Politik’ Der Spiegel, 17.09.1984 (http://www.spiegel.de/spiegel/print/d-13511457.html – accessed 20.06.2012).

25.) Bundesamt für Migration und Flüchtlinge (2012) Aktulle Zahlen zu Asyl. Ausgabe: Oktober 2012 p. 4

26.) Bundesamt für Migration und Flüchtlinge (2012) Op. Cit. p. 6

27.) M. Terwey and H. Baumann (2012) German General Social Survey. ALLBUS / GGSS Commutation 1980-2010, ZA Study No 4574, Electronic Data Handbook, Cologne: GESIS, p. 269

28.) Bundeszentrale für politische Bildung (2012) Deutschland: Deutlich mehr Einwanderer (http://www.bpb.de/gesellschaft/migration/dossier-migration/138264/deutlich-mehr-einwanderer – accessed 20.06.2012).

29.) Preuß R. (2012) Deutschland erlebt größten Ausländerzuwachs seit 15 Jahren, Süddeutsche Zeitung, 04.04.2012 (http://www.sueddeutsche.de/politik/einwanderer-studie-des-statistischen-bundesamts-deutschland-erlebt-groessten-auslaender-zuwachs-seit-jahren-1.1326592 – accessed 20.06.2012).

30.) ‘Zuwanderung lässt Deutschlands Bevölkerung wachsen’, MAGZIN, April 2012 (http://www.migazin.de/2012/04/30/zuwanderung-lasst-deutschlands-bevolkerung-wachsen/ – accessed 20.06.2012).

31.) Bundesamt für Migration und Flüchtlinge (2012) Zügig nach Deutschland? Ein Jahr uneingeschränkte Freizügigkeit für Migranten aus den EU-8 Ländern (22.05.2012), Jahresrückblick

32.) Hoehn C. (2000) Policy responses to population ageing and Population decline in Germany, UN/POP/PRA/2000/6, p. 7 (http://www.un.org/esa/population/publications/popdecline/hohn.pdf – accessed 20.06.2012).

33.) Infratest dimap (2011) EU-Arbeitnehmerfreizügigkeit. Ergebnisse einer repräsentativen Erhebung. Eine Studie im Auftrag von INITIATIVE MINDESTLOHN. Berlin, 14. April

34.) Initiative Mindestlohn (2011) Der Mindestlohn... schützt Zugewanderte wie Einheimische (http://www.initiative-mindestlohn.de/argumente/eu-arbeitnehmerfreizuegigkeit/der-mindestlohn-schuetzt-zugewanderte-wie-einheimische/ – accessed 10.08.2012).

35.) Terwey M. and Baumann H. (2012) Op. Cit., pp. 481, 482

36.) Statistisches Bundesamt (2012) Anzahl der Ausländer in Deutschland nach Herkunftsland (Stand: 31. Dezember 2011) (http://de.statista.com/statistik/daten/studie/1221/umfrage/anzahl-der-auslaender-in-deutschland-nach-herkunftsland/ – accessed 20.06.2012).

37.) Kastoryano R. (2002) Negotiating Identities. States and Immigrants in France and Germany. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Princeton and Oxford, p. 61

38.) Algan Y., Dustmann C., Glitz A. and Manning A. (2010) ‘The Economic Situation of First and Second-Generation Immigrants in France, Germany and the United Kingdom’, The Economic Journal, 120/2010, p. F15 (http://www.ucl.ac.uk/~uctpb21/Cpapers/AlganDustmannGlitzManning2010.pdf – accessed 10.08.2012).

39.) Independent Commission on Migration to Germany (2001) Structuring Immigration - Fostering Integration, Berlin, p. 208 (http://www.bmi.bund.de/SharedDocs/Downloads/EN/Broschueren/Structuring_Immigation_-_Fostering_Id_14625_en.pdf?__blob=publicationFile – accessed 10.08.2012).

40.) Lakotta B. (2008) German Schools Introduce Muslim Classes: 'Anyone Who Wants Integration Has to Provide Islam Instruction', Der Spiegel, 03.14.2008 (http://www.spiegel.de/international/germany/german-schools-introduce-muslim-classes-anyone-who-wants-integration-has-to-provide-islam-instruction-a-541440.html – accessed September 2012).

41.) Helmut R. (2007) ‘Schüler besuchen den Islam-Unterricht mit Begeisterung’, interview by Der Spiegel, 20.03.2007 (http://www.spiegel.de/politik/deutschland/baden-wuerttemberg-schueler-besuchen-den-islam-unterricht-mit-begeisterung-a-472796.html – accessed September 2012).

42.) Pommereau I. (2010) Why German public schools now teach Islam, The Christian Science Monitor, January 20, 2010 (http://www.csmonitor.com/World/Europe/2010/0120/Why-German-public-schools-now-teach-Islam – accessed 12.10.2012).

43.) Algan Y., Dustmann C., Glitz A. and Manning A. (2010) Op. Cit. p. F20

44.) Riesen I. (2009) Der IW-Integrationsmonitor, Februar 2009, Cologne: Institut der deutschen Wirtschaft , p.7

45.) Bundesagentur für Arbeit (2012) Analyse des Arbeitsmarktes für Ausländer März 2012, Nürnberg, p. 33 (http://statistik.arbeitsagentur.de/Statischer-Content/Statistische-Analysen/Analytikreports/Zentrale-Analytikreports/Monatliche-Analytikreports/Generische-Publikationen/Analyse-Arbeitsmarkt-Auslaender/Analyse-Arbeitsmarkt-Auslaender-201203.pdf – accessed 12.10.2012).

46.) This is the definition of Federal Office for Migration and Refugees (Bundesamt für Migration und Flüchtlinge). (http://www.bamf.de/EN/Service/Left/Glossary/_function/glossar.html?nn=1449076&lv2=1450786&lv3=1504366 – accessed 12.10.2012).

47.) Filsinger D. (2008) Bedingungen erfolgreicher Integration – Integrationsmonitoring und Evaluation. Bonn: Friedrich Ebert Stiftung, p. 8 (see also: Heckmann F. (2003) Op Cit., pp. 46, 47).

48.) Independent Commission on Migration to Germany (2001) Op. Cit., pp. 11, 12

49.) Kolb H. (2005) How successful was the German Green Card? Bonn: The Federal Agency for Civic Education (Bundeszentrale für politishe Bildung). (http://www.bpb.de/gesellschaft/migration/dossier-migration/58181/success – accessed 12.10.2012).

50.) ‘Integration ist eine Bereicherung’ The Press and Information Office of the Federal Government, 22.03.2012 (http://www.bundesregierung.de/Content/DE/Artikel/2012/03/2012-03-22-integrationsministerkonferenz.html – accessed 12.10.2012).

51.) ‘Merkel erklärt Multikulti für gescheitert’, Der Spiegel. 16.10.2010 (http://www.spiegel.de/politik/deutschland/integration-merkel-erklaert-multikulti-fuer-gescheitert-a-723532.html – accessed 12.10.2012).

52.) Terwey M. and Baumann H. (2012) Op. Cit., pp. 524, 525

53.) Wöhrle C. (2009) Deutschland: Diskussion um Integrationsvertrag. Berlin: Netzwerk Migration in Europa (http://www.migration-info.de/mub_artikel.php?Id=091003 – accessed 12.10.2012).

54.) Worbs S. (2007) ‘Parallelgesellschaften von Zuwanderern in Deutschland?’, Migration und ethnische Minderheiten 2007/1. Leibniz: Sozialwissenschaftlicher Fachinformationsdienst, p. 9

55.) Kastoryano R. (2002) Op. Cit., p. 71

56.) Amt für Statistik Berlin-Brandenburg (2011) Wer sind und wo leben die Zuwanderer in Berlin? Einwohnerinnen und Einwohner mit Migrationshintergrund. Pressegespräch 30 March 2011, Berlin, p. 11

57.) Pötzl N. Life in a Parallel Society. Der Spiegel International, 16.04.2008 (http://www.spiegel.de/international/europe/muslims-in-germany-life-in-a-parallel-society-a-547717.html – accessed 12.10.2012).

58.) Wroe D. ‘The streets of Neukölln: Has integration failed?’ The Local, 16.09.2010 (http://www.thelocal.de/society/20100916-29851.html – accessed 12.10.2012).

59.) Worbs S. (2007) Op. Cit., p. 7

60.) Worbs S. (2007) Op. Cit., p. 25

61.) Terwey M. and Baumann H. (2012) Op. Cit. pp. 488-490

62.) ‘De Maizière: 10 bis 15 Prozent integrationsunwillige Ausländer’, Der Tagesspiegel, 08.09.2010 (http://www.tagesspiegel.de/politik/kabinett-de-maiziere-10-bis-15-prozent-integrationsunwillige-auslaender/1928570.html – accessed 12.10.2012).

63.) Merkel A. (2010) ‘Moscheen werden Teil unseres Stadtbildes sein’, interview by Frankfurter Allgemeine, 18.09.2010 (http://www.faz.net/aktuell/politik/inland/angela-merkel-im-f-a-z-gespraech-moscheen-werden-teil-unseres-stadtbildes-sein-11036846.html – accessed 12.10.2012).

64.) Terwey M. and Baumann H. (2012), Op. Cit., p. 455

65.) Zimmermann K. and Barrett A. (2011) Study on Active Inclusion of Migrants. Final Report. Bonn/Dublin: Institute for the Study of Labor (IZA) and The Economic and Social Research Institute (ESRI), p. 31

66.) Öchsner T. (2011) ‘Neues Land, neues Glück’, Süddeutsche Zeitung, 29.12.2011 (http://www.sueddeutsche.de/wirtschaft/migranten-gruenden-mehr-unternehmen-neues-land-neues-glueck-1.1245975 – accessed 12.10.2012).

67.) Terwey M. and Baumann H. (2012), Op. Cit., pp. 524, 525

68.) Heckmann F. (2003) Op. Cit., p. 54

69.) Klingholz R. (2010) ‘Germany Needs More Foreigners’, Der Spiegel International, 30.08.2010 (http://www.spiegel.de/international/zeitgeist/immigration-debate-germany-needs-more-foreigners-a-714534.html – accessed 12.10.2012).

70.) ‘Institut: Deutschland braucht jährlich mindestens 300.000 Zuwanderer’, Sächsische Zeitung, 30.07.2012 (http://www.sz-online.de/nachrichten/artikel.asp?id=3119700 – accessed 12.10.2012).

71.) Rainer Brüderle (2011) ‘Wir brauchen Zuwanderer’, RP online, 20.04.2011 (http://www.rp-online.de/politik/deutschland/wir-brauchen-zuwanderer-1.603407 – accessed 12.10.2012).

72.) Klingholz R. (2010) Op. Cit.

73.) That is: 63,2% of all Muslims living in Germany according to the German Islam Conference (Deutsche Islam Konferenz).

74.) Sarrazin T. (2010) Deutschland schafft sich ab, München, 13rd edition 2010, p. 308 (my own translation).

75.) Consumerfieldwork (2010) Presseinformation: Meinungsumfrage zur Buchveröffentlichung von Thilo Sarrazin, 3.09.2010, p. 1 (http://www.consumerfieldwork.de/pressemitteilung-sarrazin-umfrage.htm?gclid=CNDx0f-S7qMCFRCPzAodtDE42A – accessed 12.10.2012).

76.) Maleiha M. (2010) ‘Progressive multiculturalism: the British experience’. in Silj A., ed. European Multiculturalism Revisited. London/New York: Zed Books, p. 34

77.) Maleiha M. (2010) Op. Cit., pp. 34-39

78.) Joppke C. (1999) Immigration and the Nation-State: The United States, Germany, and Great Britain. Oxford: Oxford University Press, p. 100

79.) Hansen R. (2000) Citizenship and Immigration in Post-war Britain. The institutional Origins of a Multicultural Nation. Oxford: Oxford University Press, p. 54

80.) Miles R and Cleary P. (1992) ‘Britain: Post-Colonial Migration in Context’, in Thränhardt D., ed. Europe – a New Immigration Continent. Policies and Politics in Comparative Perspective. Hamburg: Lit, pp. 126, 127

see also: Hansen R. (2000) Op. Cit., p. 8

81.) Joppke C. (1999) Op. Cit., p. 105

82.) Joppke C. (1999) Op. Cit., p. 105

83.) Joppke C. (1999) Op. Cit., p. 102

84.) Miles R and Cleary P. (1992) Op. Cit., pp. 129-131

85.) Joppke C. (1999) Op. Cit., p. 101

86.) Miles R and Cleary P. (1992) Op. Cit., p. 133

87.) Hansen R. (2000) Op. Cit., p. 20

88.) Enoch Powell (1968) ‘Rivers of Blood’ speech delivered on 20th April 1968 (http://www.telegraph.co.uk/comment/3643823/Enoch-Powells-Rivers-of-Blood-speech.html – accessed 12.10.2012).

89.) Favell A. (1998) Philosophies of Integration: Immigration and the Idea of Citizenship in France and Britain. Hampshire/New York: Palgrave Macmillan, p. 105

90.) Hansen R. (2000) Op. Cit., p. 33

91.) Joppke C. (1999) Op. Cit., pp. 117-119

92.) Rattansi A. (2011) Multiculturalism: A Very Short Introduction, Oxford: Oxford University, p. 26

93.) Office for National Statistics (ONS) (2011) Migration Statistics Quarterly Report. Polish People in the UK - Half a million Polish Residents, August 2011 (http://www.ons.gov.uk/ons/rel/migration1/migration-statistics-quarterly-report/august-2011/index.html – accessed 12.10.2012).

94.) Centre for Economic Performance (2010) Election Analysis: Immigration and the UK Labour Market: The Evidence from Economic Research. London, p. 4 (http://cep.lse.ac.uk/pubs/download/ea006.pdf – accessed 12.10.2012).

95.) Rattansi A. (2011) Op. Cit., p. 31

96.) Hansen R. (2000) Op. Cit., p. 62

97.) Sikhs have been allowed to wear Turban instead of a crash helmet on the religious grounds since the Motor-Cycle Crash Helmets (Religious Exemption) Act 1976 was passed by the British Parliament in 1976.

98.) Favell A. (1998) Op. Cit., p. 104

99.) Grillo R. (2010) ‘British and others: From ‘race’ to ‘faith’’, in Vertovec S., Wessendorf S., ed. The Multiculturalism Backlash: European Discourses, Policies and Practices. London/New York: Routledge, p. 54

100.) Algan Y., Dustmann C., Glitz A. and Manning A. (2010) Op. Cit., p F7

101.) Travis A. (2012) ‘UK migrants to face 'patriotic' citizenship test’, The Guardian 1.07.2012 (http://www.guardian.co.uk/uk/2012/jul/01/uk-migrants-patriotic-citizenship-test – accessed 12.10.2012).

102.) Rattansi A. (2011) Op. Cit., pp. 121-123

103.) Algan Y., Dustmann C., Glitz A. and Manning A. (2010) Op. Cit., p. F15 (http://www.ucl.ac.uk/~uctpb21/Cpapers/AlganDustmannGlitzManning2010.pdf – accessed 12.10.2012).

104.) Centre for Economic Performance (2010) Op. Cit., p. 5

105.) Reed J. (2005) Young Muslims in the UK: Education and Integration. Institute for Public Policy Research, December 2005, p. 6 (http://library.fes.de/pdf-files/bueros/london/03682.pdf – accessed 12.10.2012).

106.) Rex J. (2003) ‘Integration Policy in Great Britain’, in Heckmann F., Schnapper D., ed. The integration of Immigrants in European Societies. Stuttgart: Lucius & Lucius Verlagsgesellschaft, p. 89

107.) Grillo R. (2010) Op. Cit., p. 59

108.) Rex J. (2003) Op. Cit., p. 89

109.) Reed J. (2005) Op. Cit., p. 13

110.) Paton G. (2012) ‘Private Muslim schools told to promote British values’, The Telegraph, 1.06.2012 (http://www.telegraph.co.uk/education/educationnews/9305957/Private-Muslim-schools-told-to-promote-British-values.html – accessed 12.10.2012).

111.) Department for Education (2012) Consultation on Revision of The Education (Independent School Standards), p. 5 (http://dera.ioe.ac.uk/14207/ – accessed 12.10.2012).

112.) Davies L. (2012) ‘Children from immigrant families 'face significant challenges' in UK schools’, The Guardian, 11.09.2012 (http://www.guardian.co.uk/education/2012/sep/11/children-immigrant-families-uk-schools – accessed 12.10.2012).

113.) Rex J. (2003) Op. Cit., p. 85

114.) Rienzo C. (2012) Briefing: Migrants in the UK Labour Market: An Overview, Oxford: the Migration Observatory atthe University of Oxford, 28.08.2012 (http://www.migrationobservatory.ox.ac.uk/sites/files/migobs/Briefing%20-%20Migrants%20in%20the%20UK%20Labour%20Market_0.pdf – accessed 12.10.2012).

115.) Algan Y., Dustmann C., Glitz A. and Manning A. (2010) Op. Cit. p. F20

116.) Centre for Economic Performance (2010) Op. Cit., p. 5

117.) Hampshire J. (2009) Immigration Policy In The United Kingdom, Sussex Centre for Migration Research (http://migrationeducation.de/49.0.html – accessed 12.10.2012).

118.) There are more Indians in London alone than in Germany, France, Italy, the Netherlands and Portugal combined. (Office for National Statistics – ONS http://neighbourhood.statistics.gov.uk/disse mination/LeadMetadataDownloadPDF.do?downloadId=27722 – accessed 12.10.2012).

119.) Wallop H. (2009) ‘Britons flee London to be replaced by immigrants’, The Telegraph, 4.01.2009 (http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/4109171/Britons-flee-London-to-be-replaced-by-immigrants.html – accessed 12.10.2012).

120.) Shepherd J. (2011) Headteacher expresses alarm over racial segregation in London schools, The Guardian, 4.10.2011 (http://www.guardian.co.uk/education/2011/oct/04/alarm-over-racial-segregation-london-schools – accessed 12.10.2012).

121.) Harrison D. (2006) ‘Government policy on multiculturalism has been left in tatters’, The Telegraph, 8.09.2006 (http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/1530876/Government-policy-on-multiculturalism-has-been-left-in-tatters.html – accessed 12.10.2012).

122.) Pew Global Attitudes Project (2011) Common Concerns About Islamic Extremism. Muslim-Western Tensions Persist, Washington: Pew Research Centre, p. 17 (http://pewglobal.org/files/2011/07/Pew-Global-Attitudes-Muslim-Western-Relations-FINAL-FOR-PRINT-July-21-2011.pdf– accessed 12.10.2012).

123.) Hennessy P. and Kite M. ‘Poll reveals 40pc of Muslims want sharia law in UK’, The Telegraph, 19.02.2006 (http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/1510866/Poll-reveals-40pc-of-Muslims-want-sharia-law-in-UK.html – accessed 12.10.2012).

124.) Butt R. (2009) ‘Muslims in Britain have zero tolerance of homosexuality, says poll’, The Guardian, 7.05.2009 (http://www.guardian.co.uk/uk/2009/may/07/muslims-britain-france-germany-homosexuality – accessed 12.10.2012).

125.) Choudhury T. ‘Evolving Models of Multiculturalism in the United Kingdom’, in Emerson M., ed., Interculturalism. Europe and Its Muslims in Search of Sound Societal Models. Brussels: Centre for European Policy Studies, p. 133

126.) Wilson G. (2012) ‘160,000 Brits lose jobs to migrants’, The Sun, 11.01.2012 (http://www.thesun.co.uk/sol/homepage/news/politics/4049864/160000-Brits-lose-jobs-to-migrants.html – accessed 12.10.2012).

127.) Lemos, S. and Portes J. (2008) The impact of migration from the new European Union Member States on native workers, London: Department for Work and Pensions p. 4 (http://research.dwp.gov.uk/asd/asd5/wp52.pdf – accessed 12.10.2012).

128.) Vargas-Silva C. (2011) Briefing: The Fiscal Impact of Immigration in the UK, Oxford: the Migration Observatory atthe University of Oxford, 20.03.2011 (http://www.migrationobservatory.ox.ac.uk/sites/files/migobs/briefing%20-%20the%20fiscal%20impacy%20of%20immigration%20in%20the%20uk.pdf – accessed 12.10.2012).

129.) BBC News UK Politics (2012) ‘Stop ignoring immigration, Soames urges MP colleagues’, BBC News, 6.09.2012 (http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-politics-19492300 – accessed 12.10.2012).

130.) Easton M. (2012) ‘Why are we so concerned about immigration’, BBC News, March 2012 (http://www.bbc.co.uk/blogs/thereporters/markeaston/2011/02/why_are_we_so_concerned_about_im.html – accessed 12.10.2012).

131.) Brown M. (2012) ‘Cutting Immigration is Ludicrous, says Labour’, Express, 2.10.2012 (http://www.express.co.uk/posts/view/349492/Cutting-immigration-is-ludicrous-says-Labour – accessed 12.10.2012).

132.) The Migration Observatory (2012) Report: Britain’s ‘70 Million’ Debate: A Primer on Reducing Immigration to Manage Population Size, 6.09.2012. Oxford: University of Oxford (http://migrationobservatory.ox.ac.uk/sites/files/migobs/Report%20-%2070%20million%20debate.pdf – accessed 12.10.2012).

133.) Pfaff W. (2005) ‘A monster of our own making’, The Guardian/The Observer, 21.08.2012 (http://www.guardian.co.uk/uk/2005/aug/21/july7.terrorism – accessed 12.10.2012).

134.) West P. (2005) The Poverty of Multiculturalism, Civitas, pp. 8, 9 (http://www.civitas.org.uk/pdf/cs46-1.pdf – accessed 12.10.2012).

135.) Rattansi A. (2011) Op. Cit., p. 54

136.) Malik K. ‘Multiculturalism fans the flames of Islamic extremism’, The Times, 16.07.2005 (http://www.kenanmalik.com/essays/times_bombings.html – accessed 12.10.2012).

137.) Choudhury T. and Fenwick H. (2011) The impact of counter-terrorism measures on Muslim communities. Manchester: Equality and Human Rights Commission, Research report 72, p. vii (http://www.equalityhumanrights.com/uploaded_files/research/counter-terrorism_research_report_72.pdf – accessed 12.11.2012).

138.) Phillips M. ‘The Londonistan mindset’, New York Post, 4.06.2006 (http://www.melaniephillips.com/the-londonistan-mindset – accessed 12.11.2012).

139.) S. Zubaida (1995) ‘Is There a Muslim Society?’, Economy and Society, 24(2): 151-88

140.) Rattansi A. (2011) Op. Cit., p. 132

141.) Moosavi L. (2012) ‘Muslims are well-integrated in Britain – but no one seems to believe it’, The Guardian, 3.07.2012 (http://www.guardian.co.uk/commentisfree/belief/2012/jul/03/muslims-integrated-britain – accessed 12.11.2012).

142.) Uberoi V., Meer N. et. al. (2011) ‘Feeling and Being Muslim and British’ in Modood T. and Salt J., ed. Global Migration, Ethnicity and Britishness. Hampshire: Palgvare Macmillan, p. 220

143.) Modood T. and Salt J., ed. (2011) Op. Cit., p. 262

144.) Freeman G. (2004) ‘Immigrant incorporation in Western democracies’, International Migration Review 38(3), p. 945 (as cited in: Vertovec S., Wessendorf S. (2010) Op. Cit., p. 26).