A Rhetorical Examination of the Product Keynotes of Steve Jobs

Hopkins, Alexander E

A Rhetorical Examination of the Product Keynotes of Steve Jobs

By Alexander E. Hopkins
2012, Vol. 4 No. 09 | pg. 1/9 | »

Abstract

Upon Apple CEO Steve Jobs’ death in October 2011, he was mourned worldwide as an innovator who changed the landscape of the computing world. Ironically, Jobs rarely created technological-breakthroughs in computing by working hands-on with existing technology. Instead, he possessed a gifted eye for reading the “pulse” of the consumer electronics market as a whole. While much of Jobs’ marketing expertise was devised behind closed doors at Apple’s Cupertino, California headquarters, he showed the world his company’s new offerings during keynote addresses. These keynote addresses, which Jobs employed to introduce every new Apple offering, mesmerized audiences worldwide and were a key factor during Apple’s hugely successful “second renaissance” from 1997-2011.

This paper examines several of Steve Jobs’ product addresses from 1984-2011, paying particular attention to Jobs’ second tenure as Apple’s CEO from 1997-2011. Upon close analysis, the paper asserts that Steve Jobs connected with his audience on a personal level by portraying himself as the typical consumer. Besides dressing casually and using simple keynote slides, Jobs portrayed competitors’ products as “antagonists” because their design flaws frustrated both himself and his audience.

These keynote addresses, which Jobs employed to introduce every new Apple offering, mesmerized audiences worldwide and were a key factor during Apple’s hugely successful “second renaissance” (Sharma 44). Especially when the Apple iPod captured the MP3 player market in October 2004, Apple product unveilings turned from events covered mostly by technology journalists into mass-media sensations attended by business journalists, Apple “fanboys,” and product accessory vendors (Marsal, Baldoni, 44). John Sculley, who took over as Apple’s CEO in 1985 after Jobs’ firing, once remarked about the audiences at Jobs’ keynotes: “…it was almost as if there were magnetic fields, some spiritual force, mesmerizing people. Their eyes were just dazed. Excitement showed on everyone’s face. It was nearly a cult environment” (Lam, 248).

Steve Jobs’ product keynote addresses were an integral part of Apple’s “second renaissance” from 1997-2011. During Jobs’ keynotes, he sought to relate with his audience on a personal level by portraying himself as the typical consumer. Besides dressing casually and using simple keynote slides, Jobs portrayed competitors’ products as “antagonists” because their design flaws frustrated both himself and his audience.

Apple Computer was founded in 1976 in the California garage of Steve Jobs and Steve Wozniak. While the company’s early years yielded impressively eye-catching creations—including the Apple I and II—they were pricey and somewhat difficult to use. However, the “two Steves” were a dynamic duo because, while Wozniak handled the technological components of the computers, Jobs forcefully marketed them in an appealing manner to potential investors. While Wozniak’s technical brilliance could design and build powerful computers, his skills were almost worthless if they could not be aided by the persuasive rhetoric of Jobs. Since most computers in the late-1970s were clunky, hard-to-use machines, Jobs’ rhetoric also had to convince consumers that their computers were superior in every aspect

When Apple Computer was first founded, it's economic foundation was at stake because Jobs had very little “social capital” among investors (Baron & Markman, 107-108). In the 1970s, Jobs looked the part of the typical “computer geek”—thick-rimmed glasses, shoulder-length hair and dress that resembled the “counter-culture” hippy. In other words, Jobs was the anti-thesis of the clean-cut, suit-wearing corporate executive who provided the economic capital. Like Wozniak’s innate technical skill, Jobs had a knack for confidently explaining the need for investments, while positively framing it in an appealing way (Winston & Patterson, 19). For the small group of employees working under him, Jobs’ confidence created strong loyalty, allowing them to design computers efficiently. As time went on, Jobs gave more formal presentations, which impressed investors so much that they started pouring-in monetary resources to Apple.

As Apple began to build it's social (and economic) capital, Jobs became known as a perfectionist, always demanding the best for his company (Ranft & O’Neill, 127). Since Jobs’ July 1997 return to Apple was almost unheard-of in the business world, his perfectionist attitude led to narcissistic behavior (Ranft & O’Neill, 128). Behind closed doors, Jobs would “snap” at people, both within and outside of Apple, that had the potential of threatening his leadership. At the same time, however, his perfectionist attitude caused the Apple brand’s public attitudes to skyrocket (Aaker & Jacobson, 492).

It can be argued that in the business world, especially in a briskly-evolving industry like computing, aggressive tactics must be employed to maintain economic security (Smith, Ferrier & Grimm, 69). However, while Jobs had to be ruthlessly efficient to keep his company on top, he also had to appear just the opposite in his keynote addresses. At it's core, according to author Carmine Gallo (2010), a “Steve-Note” can be likened to a high-stakes “elevator pitch,” in which he has to show rather than tell his audience why they should care (Gallo, 71).

The stakes are considered quite high because Apple often breaks standard business practices. One tenet that makes Apple unique is their lack of market research. In an interview, Steve Jobs justified Apple’s unusual views by explaining: “We do no market research. We don't hire consultants. The only consultants I’ve ever hired in my 10 years is one firm to analyze Gateway’s retail strategy so I would not make some of the same mistakes they made. But we never hire consultants, per se. We just want to make great products.” (Gallo, 183).

Jobs’ rationale behind this is understandable because, while he does want his products to be popular among the public, he does not want to bend to the whims of the public because his controlling attitudes defy popular beliefs on how products should be made (Gallo, 123). The fact that Jobs harnesses the vast majority of control is a gamble that, by many, has been questioned on multiple occasions. Other software companies, such as Microsoft and Google, have spread-out the company’s control among several executive officers (Wharton, 2011). When only one person is “calling the shots,” there is a greater likelihood that this gamble will not pay-off because there is significant pressure for Steve Jobs to make products that are truly superior to their competitors.

During Apple’s “Second Renaissance,” one of Jobs’ main rhetorical goals was to show how successful Apple was becoming. When his audience believes that Apple is successful, they will likely purchase Apple’s products. When a company is successful, they will likely stay in-business for many years to come. Subsequently, his audience will likely believe that the products of Apple that they buy will be a wise investment because Apple will continue to support the products.

Like most companies, Apple has had it's share of financial slumps. However, Apple without Steve Jobs was absent from 1985-1997 led to the company’s near-bankruptcy. Other than the most devoted of Apple fans, the general public had little confidence in the company. Sales figures from those times attest to this, since the public did not believe that Apple would stay in business long enough to continue support of their product line.

However, when Jobs returned in 1997, he single-handedly made the company more successful than it had ever been. The financial turnaround was so influential that Apple’s rise has become one of the computer industry’s best “second acts.” Jobs took advantage of the company’s history prior to unveiling the iPad when he proudly remarked: “And lastly, we started Apple in 1976. Thirty-four years later, we just ended our holiday quarter, our first fiscal quarter of 2010 with 15.6 billion dollars of revenue. I don't even believe it [loud audience clapping and cheering]. Now, what that means is that Apple is an over 50 billion dollar company. Now, I like to forget that ‘cause that’s not how [we at Apple] think of Apple, but that is pretty amazing” (YouTube, 2010).

Jobs knew that the audience was aware of Apple’s “darker days.” Instead of explicitly mentioning the past, Jobs instead focused on how far the company had come. After all, when Apple was founded in 1976, it was in an arguably worse-off position than when Jobs was absent. Even during the “dark days,” Apple still had some semblance of social and financial capital. For Jobs, the late-1970s were the toughest times because he had to build Apple from scratch.

Besides showing the general growth of Apple itself, Jobs also showed the growth of Apple’s product line. “Growth” did not even have to refer to financial growth either; it could also mean the increased adoption of a product line. At MacWorld 2008, Jobs communicated both types of growth with ease: “The first one is Leopard. I’m thrilled to report that we have delivered over five million copies of Leopard in the first ninety days. Unbelievable. It's the most successful release of Mac OS X ever…Number two is about the iPhone. Today happens to be the two hundredth day that they iPhone went on sale. I’m extraordinarily pleased that we have sold four million iPhones to date….OK, number three. This is a good one, too. Number three is about iTunes. I’m really pleased to report that last week we sold our four billionth song. Isn’t that great? On Christmas Day we set a new record, twenty million songs in one day. Isn’t that amazing? That’s our new one-day record….So, that brings us to number four. There is something in the air. What is it? Well, as you know, Apple makes the best notebooks in the business: the MacBook and the MacBook Pro. Well, today we’re introducing a third kind of notebook. It's called the MacBook Air…” (Gallo, 58).

Citing sales figures to the audience prior to an actual product introduction is effective because Jobs is keeping “in-touch” with his audience. When referring especially to the Christmas Day sales of iTunes songs, he places the numbers in context when he proudly exclaims, “…we set a new record, twenty million songs in one day. Isn’t that amazing?” While citing the total number of a product sold is meaningful, placing this in the context of daily sales shows more dramatic growth (Nguyen, 2007). As explained previously, Jobs was not like the typical CEO. He hardly ever wore a business suit nor did he run his company in the privacy of a plush office. Jobs wanted to be like the members of the audience. In addition to dressing like them, he also wanted to remain rhetorically-transparent. Rhetorical transparency allowed Jobs’ audience to continue to trust that he would continue to help design stylish and effective products

Of course, Jobs had to “put his money where his mouth was” because it was not enough to simply say that a product was successful. To increase credibility amongst his audience, Jobs used rhetorical “foot-notes” in the form of official sales figures from Apple. The public’s continued investment assured Jobs and Apple that they could produce more advanced models, often with backwards compatibility with existing products. Second, as can be observed above, several products—The Leopard Operating System, the iPhone and the MacBook/MacBook Pro— were cited in succession. This was no accident because these three products were the introduction of his speech, which laid-out the speaking agenda of that day’s keynote. By showing his audience that these products were a ground-breaking success, Jobs could rest-assured that his audience would already be excited to hear about new product updates.

When announcing sales figures, Jobs shows and tells the audience that they should continue to invest in Apple’s products precisely because Apple is so successful. This success would subsequently show that Apple was revolutionizing a given product category. Prior to revealing the first-generation iPad on January 27, 2010, Jobs announced: “But before we get to that, I got a few updates. First, is an update about [our] iPods. Uh, a few weeks ago, we sold our two hundred and fifty millionth iPod. And [audience applause] iPods have changed the way we discover and purchase and enjoy music. And with two hundred and fifty million of them, I didn't want this moment to pass without recognizing it and it's pretty amazing. And that’s our iPod update” (YouTube, 2010).

Jobs’ natural assumption is that, when one of his products sells millions of units, that it would revolutionize a product category. Regardless of whether a particular product was revolutionary is meaningless because there are larger, more important implications. For one, Jobs is subtly thanking his audience for making a product enormously popular. Similarly, even if the audience does not believe that in a product’s revolutionary-nature, simply the impression that a product is successful will perhaps makes them re-consider. Keep in mind that Jobs was not lying about the sales figures. However, he could skillfully place them into a different context—in this case, that the product is “revolutionary”— allowing the audience to make up their own mind. However, when Jobs mentions that a product is “revolutionary,” the audience has one more option to consider than just sales figures alones.

Also during the iPad introduction, Jobs gave an update about the App Store. The App Store is unique from many other Apple products in that many of the apps that it offers are free. Since iTunes can be downloaded onto either a computer running Apple or Windows-based operating systems, the App Store already has a target base of the two-largest operating systems. As a result, even users who do not own any Apple products can still download free applications from the App Store via iTunes. Jobs announced sales figures at this event by proudly proclaiming: “Next update, a store of another kind: The app store. An incredible phenomenon. Delivering apps to iPhone users and iPod touch users all around the world. We have over 140,000 applications on the app store And, a few weeks ago we announced a user downloaded the 3 billionth application from the app store. This is in around 18 months since it's inception. Three billion applications in the app store” (YouTube, 2010).

The App Store has become a lucratively-successful enterprise for Apple. In the three years since the App Store first opened, applications offered by Apple have raked-in $3 billion each year (Elliot & Simon, 212). In addition to his products maintaining technological inclusivity via software compatibility, most of the applications are created by ordinary users. Unlike competitors, the majority of Apple’s applications on it's App Store were not created by professional application developers. As such, the financial success announced by Jobs would have never been possible if ordinary people had not invested their skills into creating mobile applications.

When Steve Jobs re-assumed control of Apple in July 1997, his company was no stranger to failures. One of the most noteworthy failures was Apple’s Newton PDA. Although it was the first PDA to recognize handwriting, it was considered more of a prototype, that was released to the public. While the Newton did have a fairly-high handwriting-recognition rate, it did not always recognize numbers, which was critical for storing phone numbers (Dahl, 18-19). Since Jobs was absent during the product’s launch, the Newton proved two lessons. First, Steve Jobs was crucial to Apple’s success because he ensured that products were fully developed when released. Second, a product’s success did not necessarily have to be ground-breaking in order to be successful (Dahl, 18-19). The Newton entered an uncharted market because of it's ground-breaking ability. Therefore, it's success or failure became the lessons that competitors would learn when making similar products

The Newton, while revolutionary, did not conform to the majority of users’ needs. When Apple products, such the Macintosh and the iPod were introduced, they were by no means the first products of it's kind. Computers and MP3 players existed prior to Apple’s “take” on these products in the late-1970s and 2001, respectively. In many ways, the reason why Apple introduced these two popular products was that they believed in a simpler user experience compared to their competitors (Dahl, 21).

Today, there are convincing debates regarding the strengths and weaknesses of several operating systems, including Linux, Apple and Microsoft Windows. However, Apple and Microsoft Windows are the pre-dominant operating systems that the U.S. uses. Individual opinions vary with each operating system, but one fact is certain—there will be dissatisfied Windows users that will want to switch to the Apple operating system. Therefore, one of the goals of Jobs was to specifically-appeal to these groups of consumers that were either dissatisfied or hesitant to switch operating systems.

A computer is a significant monetary investment for a prospective buyer. Jobs wanted to depict Apple as having a “positive network externality.” One important tenet that Jobs hid in his early keynotes were the many compatibility issues associated with a Windows to Apple switch (Smith, Ferrier and Grimm, 60). In Apple’s early days, Apple’s hardware and software was of a proprietary nature. This proved to be troublesome for the company because prospective “converts” to the Macintosh would be turned-off by the significant time and monetary costs of switching (Smith, Ferrier and Grimm, 60).

However, as Apple’s Mac market share continued to increase during Jobs’ second tenure as CEO, Jobs focused his keynotes to highlight the inter-compatibility between an Apple Macintosh and a PC running Microsoft Windows. In doing so, Jobs enjoyed rhetorically- exploiting his belief that every computer should have both it's hardware and software manufactured by the same company (Murugesan , 6). Since most of Apple’s competitors rarely manufacture both computer hardware and software, Jobs could effectively justify why Apple’s computers were a good investment.

Jobs strongly believed that, since Apple’s computers worked better than a typical competitor, customers would b likely to buy Apple’s products again (Bresnahan and Greenstein, 3). This generated cognitive loyalty, a belief among consumers that a product is good based on the company’s brand-name and subsequent prestige (Oliver, 35). Apple’s cognitive loyalty among consumers was affected positively during both of Jobs’ tenures as Apple’s CEO. When Jobs was absent from 1985-1997, the Apple brand’s image waned. Virtually the only people who would buy the products were Apple “purists.” On the other hand, in the years following Jobs’ return to Apple, the company slowly grew in popularity. The unifying -rhetoric that Jobs used in his keynotes subsequently boosted cognitive loyalty to reach a much broader consumer base.

Jobs’ clearly believed that everyone who bought a Macintosh computer would become a “purist.” This ideology helped to spawn the second stage of loyalty development, affective loyalty. Affective loyalty occurs when “…a liking of attitude toward the brand has developed on the basis of cumulatively satisfying usage occasions” (Oliver, 35). Affective loyalty is considered to be stronger in many ways than cognitive loyalty because the user has first-hand experience of a product’s quality and ease-of-use. However, affective loyalty cannot take root without cognitive loyalty because a discerning consumer will likely consider all top brands when considering their purchasing options.

Finally, the last stage of loyalty development are the positive network externalities. Similar to affective loyalty building upon cognitive loyalty, this phase builds upon affective loyalty. When people have first-hand experience with a product, positive network externalities will result in more consumers purchasing a product based upon the brand’s outstanding quality reputation. For Apple, this was especially evident when, just prior to and after the Apple iPod captured the majority share of the MP3 player market, the brand’s popularity was boosted when the iPod’s distinctive white ear buds became a public commonplace. In many ways, this third step creates a paradox because a reputation of some sort is required for a product to remain on store shelves.

For most of Apple’s history, in order to make a “polished” product, they often had to charge more money than competing products. In the 1980s, prior to Jobs’ firing, many journalists and reviewers dismissed Apple’s exorbitant pricing scheme for several of its computers as “expensive toy[s]” (Imbimbo, 80). Although Apple’s market share is larger than it was several years ago, it still is in a minority compared to Microsoft Windows users. Charging more money made sense for Apple because it could spend as much (or even more) than Microsoft on developing an operating system. Since Microsoft has more users, it can spread this development cost over it's wider user base, thereby allowing them to charge less (Smith, Ferrier and Grimm, 60). Despite this risky endeavor of charging more for it's products, Jobs used his keynote rhetoric to justify that Apple’s product prices suggested high quality (Hellofs & Jacobson, 19).

While sales figures and quarterly revenue calls could handily display Apple’s popularity, Steve Jobs was the face of the company (Elliot & Simon, 98). His keynotes excited Apple fans and curious consumers alike. While Jobs clearly helped to market and design Apple’s products, his stage presence was critical to Apple’s success. Nowhere was this more evident than when, in 1997, Apple was once again brought to life from near-certain financial ruin. At Jobs’ first MacWorld in 1997, author Michael Malone observed: “The crowd roared and cheered. Then Gil Amelio stepped out onstage. Wearing chinos and a sport coat, he made the unbelievable fashion mistake of putting on a collarless dress shirt. Thirty seconds earlier, Apple had once again looked like the coolest company on the planet. And now here stood the CEO, looking exactly like your newly-divorced uncle on his first date. The crowd tried to stay pumped up, but Apple’s old panache, it's legendary hipness, invoked for that one thrilling moment, was now slipping away before their eyes. It went downhill from there. Amelio’s presentation didn't even have the attribute of brevity [like Jobs’ presentations]. Instead, it went on for a disastrous, butt-breaking three hours. Two hours into this marathon, the moment everyone had been waiting for finally arrived. ‘I’d like to bring a friend out,’ Amelio said casually, with more showmanship than he’d exhibited [than] in the previous 120 minutes. The expectant rumble rose to a full-throated cry. Steven Jobs, imperially slim in his dark, tailless suit, emerged from the wings to the explosion of a hundred camera flashes. He winced at the glare.” (Malone, 531-532).

Arguably, 1997’s MacWorld was the best example of how the public felt alienated by Apple’s then-current leadership (Linzmayer, 266). For many, seeing Steve Jobs after more than a decade was a dream come true because he was the computer world’s “ultimate comeback.” During his leave, many in the public believed that Jobs’ return to Apple was unlikely. However, 1997’s MacWorld contradicted these doubts. The end result revealed Jobs’ remarkable stage presence—an unspoken ethos that proliferated throughout the room— before even beginning a keynote address.Continued on Next Page »

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Aaker, D.A. and Jacobson, R. (2001). The Value Relevance of Brand Attitude in High-Technology Markets. Journal of Marketing Research. 38 (4), 485-493.

Akhigbe, A. and Martin, A.D. (2002). Do Microsoft Acquisitions Benefit the Computer Industry? Financial Analysts Journal. 58 (19).

Allworth, J. (2011). Steve Jobs Solved the Innovator's Dilemma.Harvard Business Review. (1-2). Retrieved from http://leeds-faculty.colorado.edu/durhamg/fnce3010/steve_jobs.pdf.

Al-Rafee, S. and Cronan, T.P. (2006). Digital Piracy: Factors That Influence Attitude toward Behavior. Journal of Business Ethics. 63 (3), 237-259.

Angelelli, L. (1994). Steve Paul Jobs. Retrieved from http://ei.cs.vt.edu/~history/Jobs.html.

Apple Computer. (2009). Apple Sells Over One Million iPhone 3GS Models iPhone 3.0 Software Downloads Reach Six Million. Retrieved from http://www.apple.com/pr/library/2009/06/22Apple-Sells-Over-One-Million-iPhone-3GS-Models.html.

Apple Computer. (2009). Q3 2009 Unaudited Summary Data. Retrieved from http://images.apple.com/pr/pdf/q309data_sum.pdf.

Apple Computer. (2009). Q4 2009 Unaudited Summary Data. Retrieved from http://images.apple.com/pr/pdf/q409data_sum.pdf.

Apple Computer. (2010). Q1 2010 Unaudited Summary Data. Retrieved from http://images.apple.com/pr/pdf/q110data_sum.pdf.

Apple Computer. (2010). Q2 2010 Unaudited Summary Data. Retrieved from http://images.apple.com/pr/pdf/q210data_sum.pdf.

Apple Computer. (2011). Identifying iPod models. Retrieved from http://support.apple.com/kb/HT1353.

Apple Computer. (2012). A Mac is as Good as it Looks. Retrieved from http://www.apple.com/why-mac/better-hardware/.

Apple Computer. (2012). MacBook Pro: The World’s Greenest Lineup of Notebooks. Retrieved from http://www.apple.com/macbookpro/environment.html.

Apple Computer. (2012). Revolutionary: The New iPad. Retrieved from http://www.apple.com/.

Apple Computer. (2012). Select your 13, 15, or 17-inch MacBook Pro. Retrieved from http://store.apple.com/us/browse/home/shop_mac/family/macbook_pro.

Apple Press Info. (2000). Apple Debuts New Power Mac G4s with Dual Processors Up to Twice the Processing Power at No Additional Cost. Retrieved from http://www.apple.com/pr/library/2000/07/19Apple-Debuts-New-Power-Mac-G4s-with-Dual-Processors.html.

Apple Press Info. (2000). Apple Enhances iBook Line New iBook Special Edition in Stunning Graphite. Retrieved from http://www.apple.com/pr/library/2000/02/16Apple-Enhances-iBook-Line.html.

Apple Press Info. (2000). Apple Introduces New iMacs in Stunning New Colors Now Starting at Breakthrough Price of $799. Retrieved from http://www.apple.com/pr/library/2000/07/19Apple-Introduces-New-iMacs-in-Stunning-New-Colors.html.

Apple Press Info. (2000). Apple Introduces Revolutionary G4 Cube Power Mac G4 Cube Delivers G4 Performance in an Eight Inch Cube.Retrieved from http://www.apple.com/pr/library/2000/07/19Apple-Introduces-Revolutionary.html.

Apple Press Info. (2000). Apple Unveils All New Family of Displays to Complement Power Mac G4 Cube and Power Mac G4. Retrieved from http://www.apple.com/pr/library/2000/07/19Apple-Unveils-All-New-Family-of-Displays-to-Complement-Power-Mac-G4-Cube-and-Power-Mac-G4.html.

Apple Press Info. (2000). Apple Unveils Internet Strategy iTools - A Revolutionary New Category of Internet Services KidSafe - Finally a Way to Protect Our Kids on the Internet. Retrieved from http://www.apple.com/pr/library/2000/01/05Apple-Unveils-Internet-Strategy.html.

Apple Press Info. (2000). Apple Unveils New iBook Line All New Colors Plus iMovie 2 for Portable Video Editing. Retrieved from http://www.apple.com/pr/library/2000/09/13Apple-Unveils-New-iBook-Line.html.

Apple Press Info. (2000). Apple Unveils New PowerBook: The Fastest Portable Ever Faster Processor, Built-in FireWire and Longer Battery Life. Retrieved from http://www.apple.com/pr/library/2000/02/16Apple-Unveils-New-PowerBook-The-Fastest-Portable-Ever.html.

Apple Press Info. (2000). Apple Unveils Optical Mouse and New Pro Keyboard Apple First to Ship Optical Mouse Standard on All Desktop Computers.Retrieved from http://www.apple.com/pr/library/2000/07/19Apple-Unveils-Optical-Mouse-and-New-Pro-Keyboard.html.

Apple Press Info. (2000). Apple Ups Performance of Power Mac G4 Line. Retrieved from http://www.apple.com/pr/library/2000/02/16Apple-Ups-Performance-of-Power-Mac-G4-Line.html.

Apple Press Info. (2000). Lucasfilm and Apple Bring Star Wars: Episode II to Starwars.com and Apple.com “On Location” Series, Movie Trailers and Documentaries Streamed Exclusively In QuickTime. Retrieved from http://www.apple.com/pr/library/2000/08/10Lucasfilm-and-Apple-Bring-Star-Wars-Episode-II-to-Starwars-com-and.html.

Apple Press Info. (2001). Apple Announces iTunes 1.1 With Support for Over 25 Third-Party CD Burners iTunes Downloads Top 750,000 in First Six Weeks. Retrieved from http://www.apple.com/pr/library/2001/02/22Apple-Announces-iTunes-1-1-With-Support-for-Over-25-Third-Party-CD-Burners.html.

Apple Press Info. (2001). Apple Debuts New Power Mac G4 Line Revolutionary SuperDrive Now Available for $1,000 Less.Retrieved from http://www.apple.com/pr/library/2001/07/18Apple-Debuts-New-Power-Mac-G4-Line.html.

Apple Press Info. (2001). Apple Delivers New Power Mac G4 with 733 MHz PowerPC G4 Processors G4 Line Features CD-RW Standard in All Models to Burn CDs & Apple’s Revolutionary New SuperDrive to Burn CDs & DVDs.Retrieved from http://www.apple.com/pr/library/2001/01/09Apple-Delivers-New-Power-Mac-G4-with-733-MHz-PowerPC-G4-Processors.html.

Apple Press Info. (2001). Apple Introduces iTunes — World’s Best and Easiest To Use Jukebox Software. Retrieved from http://www.apple.com/pr/library/2001/01/09Apple-Introduces-iTunes-Worlds-Best-and-Easiest-To-Use-Jukebox-Software.html.

Apple Press Info. (2001). Apple Introduces New Power Mac G4 Cube With CD-RW & iTunes. Retrieved from http://www.apple.com/pr/library/2001/02/22Apple-Introduces-New-Power-Mac-G4-Cube-With-CD-RW-iTunes.html

Apple Press Info. (2001). Apple Presents iPod Ultra-Portable MP3 Music Player Puts 1,000 Songs in Your Pocket.Retrieved from http://www.apple.com/pr/library/2001/10/23Apple-Presents-iPod.html.

Apple Press Info. (2001). Apple Ships 5 Millionth iMac. Retrieved from http://www.apple.com/pr/library/2001/04/19Apple-Ships-5- Millionth-iMac.html.

Apple Press Info. (2001). Apple Unveils All New iBook Sleek New Portable Perfect for Today’s Digital Lifestyle. Retrieved from http://www.apple.com/pr/library/2001/05/01Apple-Unveils-All-New-iBook.html.

Apple Press Info. (2001). Apple Unveils New iMacs With CD-RW Drives & iTunes Software Rip, Mix, Burn Your Own Custom Music CDs. Retrieved from http://www.apple.com/pr/library/2001/02/22Apple-Unveils-New-iMacs-With-CD-RW-Drives-iTunes-Software.html.

Apple Press Info. (2001). Apple Unveils One Inch Thick Titanium PowerBook G4. Retrieved from http://www.apple.com/pr/library/2001/01/09Apple-Unveils-One-Inch-Thick-Titanium-PowerBook-G4.html.

Apple Press Info. (2001). iTunes Downloads Top 275,000 in First Week Mac Users Raving About Apple’s New Jukebox Software for Managing Digital Music & Burning Custom CDs.Retrieved from http://www.apple.com/pr/library/2001/01/16iTunes-Downloads-Top-275-000-in-First-Week.html.

Apple Press Info. (2002). Apple Introduces 10GB iPod—2,000 Songs in Your Pocket Download Contacts into iPod Alongside Your Music. Retrieved from http://www.apple.com/pr/library/2002/03/20Apple-Introduces-10GB-iPod-2-000-Songs-in-Your-Pocket.html.

Apple Press Info. (2002). Apple Introduces iPhoto New Mac Software Makes it Easy to Save, Organize & Share Digital Photos. Retrieved from http://www.apple.com/pr/library/2002/01/07Apple-Introduces-iPhoto.html.

Apple Press Info. (2002). Apple In Volume Production of New iMacs $100 Price Increase Due To Rising Component Costs. Retrieved from http://www.apple.com/pr/library/2002/03/20Apple-In-Volume-Production-of-New-iMacs.html.

Apple Press Info. (2002). Apple Unveils New iPods 5GB, 10GB and 20GB Versions for Mac & Windows. Retrieved from http://www.apple.com/pr/library/2002/07/17Apple-Unveils-New-iPods.html.

Apple Press Info. (2002). Apple Unveils New Titanium PowerBook G4 Features High-Res 15.2- inch Mega-Wide Display, Increased Performance & Pure Digital DVI Connection to Apple Flat-Panel Displays.Retrieved from http://www.apple.com/pr/library/2002/04/29Apple-Unveils-New-Titanium-PowerBook-G4.html.

Apple Press Info. (2002). Apple Unveils the New iMac Ground-Breaking Flat-Panel Design & G4 Processor Standard. Retrieved from http://www.apple.com/pr/library/2002/01/07Apple-Unveils-the-New-iMac.html.

Apple Press Info. (2002). Apple Wins 2002 Technical GRAMMY Award. Retrieved from http://www.apple.com/pr/library/2002/02/26Apple-Wins-2002-Technical-GRAMMY-Award.html.

Apple Press Info. (2003). Apple and Pepsi to Give Away 100 Million Free Songs. Retrieved from http://www.apple.com/pr/library/2003/10/16Apple-and-Pepsi-to-Give-Away-100-Million-Free-Songs.html.

Apple Press Info. (2003). Apple Introduces iChat AV and iSight Video Conferencing for ‘The Rest of Us.’Retrieved from http://www.apple.com/pr/library/2003/06/23Apple-Introduces-iChat-AV-and-iSight.html.

Apple Press Info. (2003). Apple Introduces Its Smallest Notebook Ever. Retrieved from http://www.apple.com/pr/library/2003/01/07Apple-Introduces-Its-Smallest-Notebook-Ever.html.

Apple Press Info. (2003). Apple Introduces New 15-inch PowerBook Joins New 17- and 12-inch Models to Complete PowerBook Line. Retrieved from http://www.apple.com/pr/library/2003/09/16Apple-Introduces-New-15-inch-PowerBook.html.

Apple Press Info. (2003). Apple Introduces New 20GB and 40GB iPods Up to 10,000 Songs in Your Pocket. Retrieved from http://www.apple.com/pr/library/2003/09/08Apple-Introduces-New-20GB-and-40GB-iPods.html.

Apple Press Info. (2003). Apple Introduces New iPods Holds up to 7,500 Songs, Yet Lighter than Two CDs. Retrieved from http://www.apple.com/pr/library/2003/04/28Apple-Introduces-New-iPods.html.

Apple Press Info. (2003). Apple Launches the iTunes Music Store.Retrieved from http://www.apple.com/pr/library/2003/04/28Apple-Launches-the-iTunes-Music-Store.html.

Apple Press Info. (2003). Apple Unleashes the World’s Fastest Personal Computer—the Power Mac G5.Retrieved from http://www.apple.com/pr/library/2003/06/23Apple-Unleashes-the-Worlds-Fastest-Personal-Computer-the-Power-Mac-G5.html.

Apple Press Info. (2003). Apple Unveils New eMac Family Complete Digital Lifestyle System Now Starts at Just $799.Retrieved from http://www.apple.com/pr/library/2003/05/06Apple-Unveils-New-eMac-Family.html.

Apple Press Info. (2003). Apple Unveils Safari Fastest Web Browser Ever Created for the Mac. Retrieved from http://www.apple.com/pr/library/2003/01/07Apple-Unveils-Safari.html.

Apple Press Info. (2003). Apple Unveils World's First 17-inch Notebook First Notebook to Feature 802.11g Wireless Networking, FireWire 800 & Backlit Keyboard. Retrieved from http://www.apple.com/pr/library/2003/01/07Apple-Unveils-World-s-First-17-inch-Notebook.html.

Apple Press Info. (2003). Former Vice President Al Gore Joins Apple’s Board of Directors. Retrieved from http://www.apple.com/pr/library/2003/03/19Former-Vice-President-Al-Gore-Joins-Apples-Board-of-Directors.html.

Apple Press Info. (2003). iTunes Music Store Downloads Top 25 Million Songs Over $1 Million of iTunes Gift Certificates and Allowances Purchased.Retrieved from http://www.apple.com/pr/library/2003/12/15iTunes-Music-Store-Downloads-Top-25-Million-Songs.html.

Apple Press Info. (2003). iTunes Music Store Hits Five Million Downloads Apple to Ship One Millionth iPod This Week. Retrieved from http://www.apple.com/pr/library/2003/06/23iTunes-Music-Store-Hits-Five-Million-Downloads.html.

Apple Press Info. (2003). iTunes Music Store Sells Over One Million Songs in First Week. Retrieved from http://www.apple.com/pr/library/2003/05/05iTunes-Music-Store-Sells-Over-One-Million-Songs-in-First-Week.html.

Apple Press Info. (2003). iTunes Music Store Sells Ten Millionth Song. Retrieved from http://www.apple.com/pr/library/2003/09/08iTunes-Music-Store-Sells-Ten-Millionth-Song.html.

Apple Press Info. (2003). iTunes Music Store Tops Two Million Song Downloads. Retrieved from http://www.apple.com/pr/library/2003/05/14iTunes-Music-Store-Tops-Two-Million-Song-Downloads.html.

Apple Press Info. (2003). iTunes Sells 1.5 Million Songs During Past Week; Five Times Napster's First Week Downloads Apple in Top Spot With Over 80 Percent Market Share. Retrieved from http://www.apple.com/pr/library/2003/11/06iTunes-Sells-1-5-Million-Songs-During-Past-Week-Five-Times-Napster-s-First-Week-Downloads.html.

Apple Press Info. (2003). One Million Copies of iTunes for Windows Software Downloaded in Three and a Half Days One Million Songs Purchased by iTunes Users in Three and a Half Days. Retrieved from http://www.apple.com/pr/library/2003/10/20One-Million-Copies-of-iTunes-for-Windows-Software-Downloaded-in-Three-and-a-Half-Days.html.

Apple Press Info. (2003). Safari Downloads Top 1 Million. Retrieved from http://www.apple.com/pr/library/2003/01/20Safari-Downloads-Top-1-Million.html.

Apple Press Info. (2004). Apple Introduces iPod mini Smallest 1,000 Song Music Player Ever Comes in Five Colors. Retrieved from http://www.apple.com/pr/library/2004/01/06Apple-Introduces-iPod-mini.html.

Apple Press Info. (2004). Apple Introduces iPod Photo Your Entire Music & Photo Library in Your Pocket Store Downloads Top 150 Million Songs iTunes Gift Cards Now at Best Buy Stores. Retrieved from http://www.apple.com/pr/library/2004/10/26Apple-Introduces-iPod-Photo.html.

Apple Press Info. (2004). Apple Introduces the New iPod Fourth Generation iPod Features Apple’s Click Wheel & 12 Hour Battery Life. Retrieved from http://www.apple.com/pr/library/2004/07/19Apple-Introduces-the-New-iPod.html.

Apple Press Info. (2004). Apple Introduces the U2 iPod U2 and Apple Partnership Fuses Art, Technology & Commerce. Retrieved from http://www.apple.com/pr/library/2004/10/26Apple-Introduces-the-U2-iPod.html.

Apple Press Info. (2004). Apple iPod mini International Availability Set for July 24. Retrieved from http://www.apple.com/pr/library/2004/.

Apple Press Info. (2004). HP and Apple Partner to Deliver Digital Music Player and iTunes to HP Customers. Retrieved from http://www.apple.com/pr/library/2004/01/08HP-and-Apple-Partner-to-Deliver-Digital-Music-Player-and-iTunes-to-HP-Customers.html.

Apple Press Info. (2004). iPod Your BMW Apple & BMW Unveil the First Seamless Integration of iPod and Car Audio System. Retrieved from http://www.apple.com/pr/library/2004/06/21iPod-Your-BMW.html.

Apple Press Info. (2004). iTunes Celebrates Its First Anniversary; Over 70 Million Songs Purchased Apple Launches Third Generation iTunes Music Store.Retrieved from http://www.apple.com/pr/library/2004/04/28iTunes-Celebrates-Its-First-Anniversary-Over-70-Million-Songs-Purchased.html.

Apple Press Info. (2004). iTunes Music Store Begins Countdown to 100 Million Songs iPod, iTunes & PowerBook Giveaways. Retrieved from http://www.apple.com/pr/library/2004/07/01iTunes-Music-Store-Begins-Countdown-to-100-Million-Songs.html.

Apple Press Info. (2004). iTunes Music Store Catalog Tops One Million Songs. Retrieved from http://www.apple.com/pr/library/2004/08/10iTunes-Music-Store-Catalog-Tops-One-Million-Songs.html.

Apple Press Info. (2004). iTunes Music Store Downloads Top 50 Million Songs. Retrieved from http://www.apple.com/pr/library/2004/03/15iTunes-Music-Store-Downloads-Top-50-Million-Songs.html.

Apple Press Info. (2004). iTunes Music Store Downloads Top 100 Million Songs. Retrieved from http://www.apple.com/pr/library/2004/07/12iTunes-Music-Store-Downloads-Top-100-Million-Songs.html.

Apple Press Info. (2004). iTunes Music Store Downloads Top 150 Million Songs iTunes Gift Cards Now at Best Buy Stores. Retrieved from http://www.apple.com/pr/library/2004/10/14iTunes-Music-Store-Downloads-Top-150-Million-Songs.html.

Apple Press Info. (2004). iTunes Music Store Downloads Top 200 Million Songs Give the Gift of Music This Holiday Season With iTunes. Retrieved from http://www.apple.com/pr/library/2004/12/16iTunes-Music-Store-Downloads-Top-200-Million-Songs.html.

Apple Press Info. (2004). iTunes Music Store Sells 3.3 Million Songs in One Week Users Post Over 20,000 iMixes in First Week. Retrieved from http://www.apple.com/pr/library/2004/05/05iTunes-Music-Store-Sells-3-3-Million-Songs-in-One-Week.html.

Apple Press Info. (2004). Two Million iPods Sold New 15GB Model Added to iPod Family. Retrieved from http://www.apple.com/pr/library/2004/01/06Over-Two-Million-iPods-Sold.html.

Apple Press Info. (2005). Apple & Mercedes-Benz Unveil iPod Integration Kit Mercedes-Benz is First Automaker to Deliver Full iPod Music Navigation. Retrieved from http://www.apple.com/pr/library/2005/01/11Apple-Mercedes-Benz-Unveil-iPod-Integration-Kit.html.

Apple Press Info. (2005). Apple Announces iTunes 6 With 2,000 Music Videos, Pixar Short Films & Hit TV Shows ABC’s “Desperate Housewives” & “Lost” Episodes Available for Just $1.99. Retrieved from http://www.apple.com/pr/library/2005/10/12Apple-Announces-iTunes-6-With-2-000-Music-Videos-Pixar-Short-Films-Hit-TV-Shows.html.

Apple Press Info. (2005). Apple Honors GRAMMY Award Winning Artists GRAMMY Award Winning Music Specially Priced on the iTunes Music Store. Retrieved from http://www.apple.com/pr/library/2005/02/14Apple-Honors-GRAMMY-Award-Winning-Artists.html.

Apple Press Info. (2005). Apple Introduces iPod Nano. Retrieved from http://www.apple.com/pr/library/2005/09/07Apple-Introduces-iPod-nano.html.

Apple Press Info. (2005). Apple Introduces iPod shuffle First iPod Under $100 MACWORLD EXPO, SAN FRANCISCO—CA.Retrieved from http://www.apple.com/pr/library/2005/01/11Apple-Introduces-iPod-shuffle.html.

Apple Press Info. (2005). Apple Introduces iTunes 5 iTunes Music Store Catalog Tops Two Million Songs. Retrieved from http://www.apple.com/pr/library/2005/09/07Apple-Introduces-iTunes-5.html.

Apple Press Info. (2005). Apple Introduces Mac mini Most Affordable Mac Ever Starts at Just $499. Retrieved from http://www.apple.com/pr/library/2005/01/11Apple-Introduces-Mac-mini.html

Apple Press Info. (2005). Apple Introduces the New iMac G5 Features Built-in iSight Video Camera & Breakthrough “Front Row” Media Experience. Retrieved from http://www.apple.com/pr/library/2005/10/12Apple-Introduces-the-New-iMac-G5.html.

Apple Press Info. (2005). Apple Unveils New iPod mini Starting at Just $199. Retrieved from http://www.apple.com/pr/library/2005/02/23Apple-Unveils-New-iPod-mini-Starting-at-Just-199.html.

Apple Press Info. (2005). Apple Updates iPod photo Lineup New Slim 30GB Model Starts at Just $349. Retrieved from http://www.apple.com/pr/library/2005/02/23Apple-Updates-iPod-photo-Lineup.html

Apple Press Info. (2005). Coldplay’s Fix You EP to Benefit Hurricane Katrina Victims Available Exclusively on the iTunes Music Store. Retrieved from http://www.apple.com/pr/library/2005/09/14Coldplays-Fix-You-EP-to-Benefit-Hurricane-Katrina-Victims-Available-Exclusively-on-the-iTunes-Music-Store.html.

Apple Press Info. (2005). iTunes Music Store Downloads Surpass 300 Million ‘Across The Universe’ Hits the Billboard Hot 100 Singles Chart.Retrieved from http://www.apple.com/pr/library/2005/03/02iTunes-Music-Store-Downloads-Surpass-300-Million.html.

Apple Press Info. (2005). iTunes Music Store Downloads Top a Quarter Billion Songs. Retrieved from http://www.apple.com/pr/library/2005/01/24iTunes-Music-Store-Downloads-Top-a-Quarter-Billion-Songs.html.

Apple Press Info. (2005). iTunes Music Store Downloads Top Half a Billion Songs. Retrieved from http://www.apple.com/pr/library/2005/07/18iTunes-Music-Store-Downloads-Top-Half-a-Billion-Songs.html.

Apple Press Info. (2005). iTunes Music Store Sells One Million Videos in Less Than 20 Days. Retrieved from http://www.apple.com/pr/library/2005/10/31iTunes-Music-Store-Sells-One-Million-Videos-in-Less-Than-20-Days.html

Apple Press Info. (2005). Japan iTunes Music Store Sells One Million Songs in First Four Days. Retrieved from http://www.apple.com/pr/library/2005/08/08Japan-iTunes-Music-Store-Sells-One-Million-Songs-in-First-Four-Days.html.

Apple Press Info. (2005). NBC Universal & Apple Offer New Primetime, Cable, Late-Night & Classic TV Shows on the iTunes Music Store iTunes Music Store Video Downloads Top Three Million. Retrieved from http://www.apple.com/pr/library/2005/12/06NBC-Universal-Apple-Offer-New-Primetime-Cable-Late-Night-Classic-TV-Shows-on-the-iTunes-Music-Store.html.

Apple Press Info. (2006). Apple Announces iPod Nano (PRODUCT) RED Special Edition Portion of Proceeds Contributed to The Global Fund to Fight AIDS. Retrieved from http://www.apple.com/pr/library/2006/10/13Apple-Announces-iPod-nano-PRODUCT-RED-Special-Edition.html.

Apple Press Info. (2006). Apple Announces iTunes 7 with Amazing New Features Disney, Pixar, Touchstone & Miramax Movies Now Available on the iTunes Store.Retrieved from http://www.apple.com/pr/library/2006/09/12Apple-Announces-iTunes-7-with-Amazing-New-Features.html.

Apple Press Info. (2006). Apple Introduces MacBook Pro MacBook Pro with Intel Core Duo Processor Up to Four Times Faster Than PowerBook G4. Retrieved from http://www.apple.com/pr/library/2006/01/10Apple-Introduces-MacBook-Pro.html.

Apple Press Info. (2006). Apple Introduces the New iPod Hollywood Movies, Games & New Lower Price. Last modified September 12, 2006. Retrieved from http://www.apple.com/pr/library/2006/09/12Apple-Introduces-the-New-iPod.html

Apple Press Info. (2006). Apple Introduces the New iPod Nano World’s Most Popular Digital Music Player Features New Aluminum Design in Five Colors & 24 Hour Battery Life.Retrieved from http://www.apple.com/pr/library/2006/09/12Apple-Introduces-the-New-iPod-nano.html.

Apple Press Info. (2006). Columbia Records & Apple Offer Exclusive Digital Pre-Order of Bob Dylan’s New Album ‘Modern Times’ & Advance Ticket Pre-Sale for Upcoming Concert Tour Bob Dylan Digital Box Set ‘The Collection’ Available Exclusively on iTunes. Retrieved from http://www.apple.com/pr/library/2006/08/08Columbia-Records-Apple-Offer-Exclusive-Digital-Pre-Order-of-Bob-Dylans-New-Album-Modern-Times-Advance-Ticket-Pre-Sale-for-Upcoming-Concert-Tour.html.

Apple Press Info. (2006). Apple Unveils the New iPod shuffle World’s Smallest Digital Music Player is Wearable with Innovative Clip. Retrieved from http://www.apple.com/pr/library/2006/09/12Apple-Unveils-the-New-iPod-shuffle.html.

Apple Press Info. (2006). iTunes Music Store Downloads Top One Billion Songs Scholarship at Juilliard School of Music to be Created. Retrieved from http://www.apple.com/pr/library/2006/02/23iTunes-Music-Store-Downloads-Top-One-Billion-Songs.html.

Apple Press Info. (2006). Nike and Apple Team Up to Launch Nike iPod Global Collaboration Brings the Worlds of Sports & Music Together Like Never Before.Retrieved from http://www.apple.com/pr/library/2006/05/23Nike-and-Apple-Team-Up-to-Launch-Nike-iPod.html.

Apple Press Info. (2007). 100 Million iPods Sold. Retrieved from http://www.apple.com/pr/library/2007/04/09100-Million-iPods-Sold.html.

Apple Press Info. (2007). Apple and AT&T Announce iTunes Activation and Sync for iPhone Already Familiar to Tens of Millions of iPod Users. Retrieved from http://www.apple.com/pr/library/2007/06/26Apple-and-AT-T-Announce-iTunes-Activation-and-Sync-for-iPhone.html.

Apple Press Info. (2007). Apple and Starbucks Announce Music Partnership Wirelessly Find and Buy Music at Starbucks. Retrieved from http://www.apple.com/pr/library/2007/09/05Apple-and-Starbucks-Announce-Music-Partnership.html.

Apple Press Info. (2007). Apple Chooses Cingular as Exclusive US Carrier for Its Revolutionary iPhone. Retrieved from http://www.apple.com/pr/library/2007/01/09Apple-Chooses-Cingular-as-Exclusive-US-Carrier-for-Its-Revolutionary-iPhone.html.

Apple Press Info. (2007). Apple Introduces All New iPod Nano World’s Most Popular Music Player Now Plays Video.Retrieved from http://www.apple.com/pr/library/2007/09/05Apple-Introduces-All-New-iPod-nano.html.

Apple Press Info. (2007). Apple Introduces New iPod classic New 160GB Model Holds Up to 40,000 Songs.Retrieved from http://www.apple.com/pr/library/2007/09/05Apple-Introduces-New-iPod-classic.html.

Apple Press Info. (2007). Apple Introduces New iPod Nano Fourth Generation iPod Nano Features Apple’s New Genius Technology. Retrieved from http://www.apple.com/pr/library/2008/09/09Apple-Introduces-New-iPod-nano.html.

Apple Press Info. (2007). Apple Launches iTunes Plus Higher Quality DRM-Free Tracks Now Available on the iTunes Store Worldwide.Retrieved from http://www.apple.com/pr/library/2007/05/30Apple-Launches-iTunes-Plus.html.

Apple Press Info. (2007). Apple Reinvents the Phone with iPhone.Retrieved from http://www.apple.com/pr/library/2007/01/09Apple-Reinvents-the-Phone-with-iPhone.html.

Apple Press Info. (2007). Apple Sells One Millionth iPhone. Retrieved from http://www.apple.com/pr/library/2007/09/10Apple-Sells-One-Millionth-iPhone.html.

Apple Press Info. (2007). Apple Sells Two Million Copies of Mac OS X Leopard in First Weekend. Retrieved from http://www.apple.com/pr/library/2007/10/30Apple-Sells-Two-Million-Copies-of-Mac-OS-X-Leopard-in-First-Weekend.html.

Apple Press Info. (2007). Apple Sets iPhone Price at $399 for this Holiday Season. Retrieved from http://www.apple.com/pr/library/2007/09/05Apple-Sets-iPhone-Price-at-399-for-this-Holiday-Season.html.

Apple Press Info. (2007). Apple TV Coming to Your Living Room Movies, TV Shows, Music & Photos on Your Big Screen TV. Retrieved from http://www.apple.com/pr/library/2007/01/09Apple-TV-Coming-to-Your-Living-Room.html.

Apple Press Info. (2007). Apple Unveils Higher Quality DRM-Free Music on the iTunes Store DRM-Free Songs from EMI Available on iTunes for $1.29 in May. Retrieved from http://www.apple.com/pr/library/2007/04/02Apple-Unveils-Higher-Quality-DRM-Free-Music-on-the-iTunes-Store.html.

Apple Press Info. (2007). Apple Unveils iPod touch Revolutionary Multi-touch Interface & Built- in Wi-Fi Wireless Networking. Retrieved from http://www.apple.com/pr/library/2007/09/05Apple-Unveils-iPod-touch.html.

Apple Press Info. (2007). Apple Unveils New iMac All New Line Features Sleek Aluminum 20- and 24-inch Designs. Retrieved from http://www.apple.com/pr/library/2007/08/07Apple-Unveils-New-iMac.html.

Apple Press Info. (2007). Apple Unveils the iTunes Wi-Fi Music Store Wireless Music Downloads Directly to iPod touch & iPhone Custom Ringtone Maker Now Built into iTunes.Retrieved from http://www.apple.com/pr/library/2007/09/05Apple-Unveils-the-iTunes-Wi-Fi-Music-Store.html.

Apple Press Info. (2007). AT&T and Apple Announce Simple, Affordable Service Plans for iPhone All Plans Include Unlimited Data & Visual Voicemail. Retrieved from http://www.apple.com/pr/library/2007/06/26AT-T-and-Apple-Announce-Simple-Affordable-Service-Plans-for-iPhone.html.

Apple Press Info. (2007). iPhone Delivers Up to Eight Hours of Talk Time Now Features Durable Glass Top Surface.Retrieved from http://www.apple.com/pr/library/2007/06/18iPhone-Delivers-Up-to-Eight-Hours-of-Talk-Time.html.

Apple Press Info. (2007). iTunes Offers Exclusive Pre-Order of New Paul McCartney Album “Memory Almost Full” Complete Catalog of 25 Solo Albums Coming to iTunes This Month.Retrieved from http://www.apple.com/pr/library/2007/05/15iTunes-Offers-Exclusive-Pre-Order-of-New-Paul-McCartney-Album-Memory-Almost-Full.html.

Apple Press Info. (2007). iTunes Store Tops Three Billion Songs. Retrieved from http://www.apple.com/pr/library/2007/07/31iTunes-Store-Tops-Three-Billion-Songs.html.

Apple Press Info. (2007). iTunes Store Tops Two Billion Songs 50 Million TV Shows & Over 1.3 Million Movies Sold. Retrieved from http://www.apple.com/pr/library/2007/01/09iTunes-Store-Tops-Two-Billion-Songs.html.

Apple Press Info. (2007).John Lennon Solo Catalog Debuts on iTunes Store.Retrieved from http://www.apple.com/pr/library/2007/08/14John-Lennon-Solo-Catalog-Debuts-on-iTunes-Store.html.

Apple Press Info. (2008). Apple Announces Major Software Upgrade for iPod touch. Retrieved from http://www.apple.com/pr/library/2008/01/15Apple-Announces-Major-SoftwareUpgrade-for-iPod-touch.html.

Apple Press Info. (2008). Apple Announces Time Capsule Wireless Backup for all Your Macs. Retrieved from http://www.apple.com/pr/library/2008/01/15Apple-Announces-Time-Capsule.html.

Apple Press Info. (2008). Apple Enhances Revolutionary iPhone with Software Update. Retrieved from http://www.apple.com/pr/library/2008/01/15Apple-Enhances-Revolutionary-iPhone-with-Software-Update.html.

Apple Press Info. (2009). Apple Introduces 17-inch MacBook Pro With Revolutionary New Built- in Battery That Delivers Eight Hours of Use & 1,000 Recharges.Retrieved from http://www.apple.com/pr/library/2009/01/06Apple-Introduces-17-inch-MacBook-Pro-With-Revolutionary-New-Built-in-Battery-That-Delivers-Eight-Hours-of-Use-1-000-Recharges.html

Apple Press Info. (2008). Apple Introduces MacBook Air—The World’s Thinnest Notebook. Retrieved from http://www.apple.com/pr/library/2008/01/15Apple-Introduces-MacBook-Air-The-Worlds-Thinnest-Notebook.html.

Apple Press Info. (2008). Apple Introduces MobileMe Internet Service Push Email, Push Contacts and Push Calendar for iPhone, iPod touch, Macs and PCs.Retrieved from http://www.apple.com/pr/library/2008/06/09Apple-Introduces-MobileMe-Internet-Service.html.

Apple Press Info. (2008). Apple Introduces New Apple TV Software & Lowers Price to $229 Rent High Definition Movies Directly from Your Widescreen TV. Retrieved from http://www.apple.com/pr/library/2008/01/15Apple-Introduces-New-Apple-TV-Software-Lowers-Price-to-229.html.

Apple Press Info. (2008). Apple Introduces New iPod touch The Funnest iPod Ever—Perfect for Music, Movies & Games. Retrieved from http://www.apple.com/pr/library/2008/09/09Apple-Introduces-New-iPod-touch.html.

Apple Press Info. (2008). Apple Introduces the New iPhone 3G Twice as Fast at Half the Price. Retrieved from http://www.apple.com/pr/library/2008/06/09Apple-Introduces-the-New-iPhone-3G.html.

Apple Press Info. (2008). Apple Sells One Million iPhone 3Gs in First Weekend. Retrieved from http://www.apple.com/pr/library/2008/07/14Apple-Sells-One-Million-iPhone-3Gs-in-First-Weekend.html.

Apple Press Info. (2008). iPhone App Store Downloads Top 10 Million in First Weekend. Retrieved from http://www.apple.com/pr/library/2008/07/14iPhone-App-Store-Downloads-Top-10-Million-in-First-Weekend.html.

Apple Press Info. (2008). iTunes Store Tops Over Five Billion Songs Sold Apple Renting & Selling Over 50,000 Movies Per Day.Retrieved from http://www.apple.com/pr/library/2008/06/19iTunes-Store-Tops-Over-Five-Billion-Songs-Sold.html.

Apple Press Info. (2008). NBC Universal Returns to the iTunes Store All-Star Lineup Includes “Heroes,” “The Office,” “Battlestar Galactica” & “30 Rock” Top Rated NBC Comedies & Dramas Now Available on iTunes in Stunning HD. Retrieved from http://www.apple.com/pr/library/2008/09/09NBC-Universal-Returns-to-the-iTunes-Store.html.

Apple Press Info. (2008). New MacBook Family Redefines Notebook Design Industry’s Greenest Notebooks. Retrieved from http://www.apple.com/pr/library/2008/10/14New-MacBook-Family-Redefines-Notebook-Design.html.

Apple Press Info. (2008). Twentieth Century Fox & Apple Introduce iTunes Digital Copy DVDs Include Free Copy of Movie for iTunes. Retrieved from http://www.apple.com/pr/library/2008/01/15Twentieth-Century-Fox-Apple-Introduce-iTunes-Digital-Copy.html.

Apple Press Info. (2010). Apple Brings FaceTime to the Mac Macs Can Video Call Over 19 Million iPhone 4 & iPod touch Users. Retrieved from http://www.apple.com/pr/library/2010/10/20Apple-Brings-FaceTime-to-the-Mac.html.

Apple Press Info. (2010). Apple Gives Sneak Peek of Mac OS X Lion.Retrieved from http://www.apple.com/pr/library/2010/10/20Apple-Gives-Sneak-Peek-of-Mac-OS-X-Lion.html.

Apple Press Info. (2010). Apple Introduces iTunes 10 With Ping Ping Social Music Discovery Now Available to 160 Million iTunes Users in 23 Countries.Retrieved from http://www.apple.com/pr/library/2010/09/01Apple-Introduces-iTunes-10-With-Ping.html.

Apple Press Info. (2009). Apple Introduces New iPod Nano With Built-in Video Camera World’s Most Popular Music Player Now Available in Nine Brilliant Colors. Retrieved from http://www.apple.com/pr/library/2009/09/09Apple-Introduces-New-iPod-nano-With-Built-in-Video-Camera.html.

Apple Press Info. (2009). Apple’s App Store Downloads Top 1.5 Billion in First Year More Than 65,000 Apps; Over 100,000 Developers. Retrieved from http://www.apple.com/pr/library/2009/07/14Apples-App-Store-Downloads-Top-1-5-Billion-in-First-Year.html.

Apple Press Info. (2009). Apple’s App Store Downloads Top Two Billion More Than 85,000 Apps Now Available for iPhone & iPod touch. Retrieved from http://www.apple.com/pr/library/2009/09/28Apples-App-Store-Downloads-Top-Two-Billion.html.

Apple Press Info. (2009). Changes Coming to the iTunes Store. Retrieved from http://www.apple.com/pr/library/2009/01/06Changes-Coming-to-the-iTunes-Store.html.

Apple Press Info. (2009). January 5, 2009 Letter from Apple CEO Steve Jobs. Retrieved from http://www.apple.com/pr/library/2009/01/05Letter-from-Apple-CEO-Steve-Jobs.html.

Apple Press Info. (2009). January 14, 2009 Apple Media Advisory. Retrieved from http://www.apple.com/pr/library/2009/01/14Apple-Media-Advisory.html.

Apple Press Info. (2010). Apple Introduces New iPod touch Features Retina Display, A4 chip, FaceTime Video Calling, HD Video Recording & Game Center.Retrieved from http://www.apple.com/pr/library/2010/09/01Apple-Introduces-New-iPod-touch.html.

Apple Press Info. (2010). Apple Launches iPad Magical & Revolutionary Device at an Unbelievable Price. Retrieved from http://www.apple.com/pr/library/2010/01/27Apple-Launches-iPad.html.

Apple Press Info. (2010). Apple Premieres iTunes 9 Featuring iTunes LP, Home Sharing, Genius Mixes & Improved Syncing.Retrieved from http://www.apple.com/pr/library/2009/09/09Apple-Premieres-iTunes-9.html.

Apple Press Info. (2010). Apple Premieres New Apple TV for Breakthrough Price of $99 Rent Commercial Free HD TV Episodes for Just 99 Cents. Retrieved from http://www.apple.com/pr/library/2010/09/01Apple-Premieres-New-Apple-TV-for-Breakthrough-Price-of-99.html.

Apple Press Info. (2010). Apple Presents iPhone 4 All-New Design with FaceTime Video Calling, Retina Display, 5 Megapixel Camera & HD Video Recording Thinnest Smartphone Ever. Retrieved from http://www.apple.com/pr/library/2010/06/07Apple-Presents-iPhone-4.html.

Apple Press Info. (2010). Apple Previews iPhone OS 4 Includes Multitasking, Folders, iBooks, Unified Inbox & More. Retrieved from http://www.apple.com/pr/library/2010/04/08Apple-Previews-iPhone-OS-4.html.

Apple Press Info. (2010). Apple Reinvents iPod Nano With Multi-Touch Interface New Built-in Clip for Instant Wearability. Retrieved from http://www.apple.com/pr/library/2010/09/01Apple-Reinvents-iPod-nano-With-Multi-Touch-Interface.html.

Apple Press Info. (2010). Apple Reinvents Notebooks With New MacBook Air. Retrieved from http://www.apple.com/pr/library/2010/10/20Apple-Reinvents-Notebooks-With-New-MacBook-Air.html.

Apple Press Info. (2010). Apple Sells One Million iPads. Retrieved from http://www.apple.com/pr/library/2010/05/03Apple-Sells-One-Million-iPads.html.

Apple Press Info. (2010). Apple Sells Over 300,000 iPads First Day. Retrieved from http://www.apple.com/pr/library/2010/04/05Apple-Sells-Over-300-000-iPads-First-Day.html.

Apple Press Info. (2010). Apple Sells Three Million iPads in 80 Days. Retrieved from http://www.apple.com/pr/library/2010/06/22Apple-Sells-Three-Million-iPads-in-80-Days.html.

Apple Press Info. (2010). Apple Sells Two Million iPads in Less Than 60 Days.Retrieved from http://www.apple.com/pr/library/2010/05/31Apple-Sells-Two-Million-iPads-in-Less-Than-60-Days.html

Apple Press Info. (2010). Apple to Debut iAds on July 1 Over $60 Million in 2010 Commitments from Leading Global Brands.Retrieved from http://www.apple.com/pr/library/2010/06/07Apple-to-Debut-iAds-on-July-1.html.

Apple Press Info. (2010). Apple Unveils New iPod shuffle World’s Smallest iPod for Just $49. Retrieved from http://www.apple.com/pr/library/2010/09/01Apple-Unveils-New-iPod-shuffle.html.

Apple Press Info. (2010). Apple’s App Store Downloads Top Three Billion. Retrieved from http://www.apple.com/pr/library/2010/01/05Apples-App-Store-Downloads-Top-Three-Billion.html.

Apple Press Info. (2010). Apple’s iOS 4.2 Available Today for iPad, iPhone & iPod touch Major Software Update Brings Multitasking, Folders, Unified Inbox, Game Center, AirPlay & AirPrint to iPad. Retrieved from http://www.apple.com/pr/library/2010/11/22Apples-iOS-4-2-Available-Today-for-iPad-iPhone-iPod-touch.html.

Apple Press Info. (2010). iPad Arrives This Saturday. Retrieved from http://www.apple.com/pr/library/2010/03/29iPad-Arrives-This-Saturday.html.

Apple Press Info. (2010). iPad Available in US on April 3 Pre-Order on March 12. Retrieved from http://www.apple.com/pr/library/2010/03/05iPad-Available-in-US-on-April-3.html.

Apple Press Info. (2010). iPhone 4 Sales Top 1.7 Million. Retrieved from http://www.apple.com/pr/library/2010/06/28iPhone-4-Sales-Top-1-7-Million.html.

Apple Press Info. (2010). iTunes Store Tops 10 Billion Songs Sold. Retrieved from http://www.apple.com/pr/library/2010/02/25iTunes-Store-Tops-10-Billion-Songs-Sold.html.

Apple Press Info. (2010). The Beatles Now on iTunes All 13 Legendary Beatles Studio Albums & Special Digital Box Set. Retrieved from http://www.apple.com/pr/library/2010/11/16The-Beatles-Now-on-iTunes.html.

Apple Press Info. (2011). Apple Introduces iCloud Free Cloud Services Beyond Anything Offered to Date. Retrieved from http://www.apple.com/pr/library/2011/06/06Apple-Introduces-iCloud.html.

Apple Press Info. (2011). Apple Introduces iOS 4.3 Update Includes Faster Safari Performance, iTunes Home Sharing, AirPlay Improvements & New Personal Hotspot. Retrieved from http://www.apple.com/pr/library/2011/03/02Apple-Introduces-iOS-4-3.html.

Apple Press Info. (2011). Apple Launches iPad 2 All New Design is Thinner, Lighter & Faster with FaceTime, Smart Covers & 10 Hour Battery. Retrieved from http://www.apple.com/pr/library/2011/03/02Apple-Launches-iPad-2.html.

Apple Press Info. (2011). Apple Launches Subscriptions on the App Store. Retrieved from http://www.apple.com/pr/library/2011/02/15Apple-Launches-Subscriptions-on-the-App-Store.html.

Apple Press Info. (2011). Apple’s Mac App Store Opens for Business. Retrieved from http://www.apple.com/pr/library/2011/01/06Apples-Mac-App-Store-Opens-for-Business.html.

Apple Press Info. (2011). Apple’s Mac App Store to Open on January 6. Retrieved from http://www.apple.com/pr/library/2010/12/16Apples-Mac-App-Store-to-Open-on-January-6.html.

Apple Press Info. (2011). August 24, 2011 Letter from Steve Jobs. Retrieved from http://www.apple.com/pr/library/2011/08/24Letter-from-Steve-Jobs.html.

Apple Press Info. (2011). iPad 2 Arrives in 25 More Countries This Friday Available in Hong Kong, Korea & Singapore in April. Retrieved from http://www.apple.com/pr/library/2011/03/22iPad-2-Arrives-in-25-More-Countries-This-Friday.html.

Apple Press Info. (2011). January 17, 2011 Apple Media Advisory. Retrieved from http://www.apple.com/pr/library/2011/01/17Apple-Media-Advisory.html.

Apple Press Info. (2011). Mac App Store Downloads Top One Million in First Day. Retrieved from http://www.apple.com/pr/library/2011/01/07Mac-App-Store-Downloads-Top-One-Million-in-First-Day.html.

Apple Press Info. (2011). New Version of iOS Includes Notification Center, iMessage, Newsstand, Twitter Integration Among 200 New Features Available to iPhone, iPad & iPod touch Users This Fall. Retrieved from http://www.apple.com/pr/library/2011/06/06New-Version-of-iOS-Includes-Notification-Center-iMessage-Newsstand-Twitter-Integration-Among-200-New-Features.html.

Apple Press Info. (2011). October 5, 2011 Apple Media Advisory. Retrieved from http://www.apple.com/pr/library/2011/10/05Apple-Media-Advisory.html.

Apple Press Info. (2011). October 5, 2011 Statement by Apple’s Board of Directors. Retrieved from http://www.apple.com/pr/library/2011/10/05Statement-by-Apples-Board-of-Directors.html.

Ashman, I. and Winstanley, D. (2007). For or Against Corporate Identity? Personification and the Problem of Moral Agency. Journal of Business Ethics. 76 (1), 83-95.

Baron, R.A. and Markman, G.D. (2000) Beyond Social Capital: How Social Skills Can Enhance Entrepreneurs’ Success. The Academy of Management Executive (1993-2005). 14 (1), 106-116.

Baldoni, J. (2006). How Great Leaders Get Great Results. New York: McGraw-Hill.

Bayus, B.L., Erickson, G. and Jacobson, R. (2003). The Financial Rewards of New Product Introductions in the Personal Computer Industry. Management Science. 49 (2), 197-210.

Beahm, G. (2011). I, Steve: Steve Jobs in His Own Words. Chicago: B2 Books.

Bell, G. (2011). Life, Death, and the iPad: Cultural Symbols and Steve Jobs. Communications of the ACM. 54 (12), 24-25.

Billboard (Photographer). (2011). Photograph. Retrieved from http://www.billboard.com/news/bono-on-steve-jobs-we-will-all-miss-the-1005393332.story

Biron, L. (2011). iFever hits Chicago: iPad 2 lines wrap around the block. Retrieved from http://news.medill.northwestern.edu/chicago/news.aspx?id=183150.

Blass, E. (2007). It's on: Apple event slated for September 5th. Retrieved from http://www.blogcdn.com/www.engadget.com/media/2007/08/appleinvite.jpg.

Bowling Green State University. (2010). Apple Store. Retrieved from http://blogs.bgsu.edu/barberm/2010/09/29/in-store-display-brand-brief-and-research/applestore3/.

Bresnahan, T.F. and Greenstein, S. (1999). Technological Competition and the Structure of the Computer Industry.The Journal of Industrial Economics. 47 (1), 1-40.

Calantone, R.J. and Schatzel, K.E. (2000). Strategic Foretelling: Communication-Based Antecedents of a Firm’s Propensity to Preannounce. The Journal of Marketing. 64 (1), 17-30.

Campbell-Kelly, M. (2001). Not Only Microsoft: The Maturing of the Personal Computer Software Industry, 1982-1995. The Business History Review. 75 (1), 103-145.

Chen, J. (2010). iPad LiveBlog Archive. Retrieved from http://gizmodo.com/5462488/ipad-liveblog-archive.

Corley, K., Mentzer, C. Spurgeon, S., and Starke, M. (2011). Cell Phones and Their Networks on the Environment Award Letter April 22, 2011. http://mrstarke.iweb.bsu.edu/510/ta/TeamEcoA_Final.htm.

Dahl, D.W., Chattopadhyay, A. and Gorn, G.J. (1999). The Use of Visual Mental Imagery in New Product Design. Journal of Marketing Research. 36 (1), 18-28.

DeGraff, J. (2011). Innovation Expert Reflects on Steve Jobs' Cultural Impact. Retrieved from http://www.bus.umich.edu/NewsRoom/ArticleDisplay.asp?news_id=23001.

Delta Flow. (2006). Golden ratio in the design of the iPod. Retrieved from http://www.deltaflow.com/wp-content/images/ipod_design_creative_iriver.jpg.

Denning, P.J. and Frenkel, K.A. (1989). A Conversation with Steve Jobs. Communications of the ACM. 32 (4), 437-443.

Elliott, H. (2010). Steve Jobs 'Thrilled' With iPad Success. Forbes. Retrieved from http://www.forbes.com/sites/booked/2010/06/07/steve-jobs-thrilled-with-ipad-success/.

Elliot, J. and Simon, W.L. (2011). The Steve Jobs Way: iLeadership For A New Generation. Philadelphia: Vanguard Press.

Elmer-DeWitt, P. (2008). Analyst: Apple's U.S. consumer market share now 21 percent. CNN Money. Retrieved from http://tech.fortune.cnn.com/2008/04/01/analyst-apples-us-consumer-market-share-now-21-percent/.

Frommer, Dan. (2006). Here's What Steve Jobs Is Going To Announce Today At WWDC. Business Insider. Retrieved from http://www.businessinsider.com/heres-what-steve-jobs-is-going-to-announce-today-at-wwdc-2010-6?op=1

Gallo, C. (2007). Steve Jobs' Greatest Presentation Our communications coach mines Jobs' introduction of the iPhone to offer five lessons for making an unforgettable pitch. Business Week. Retrieved from http://www.businessweek.com/smallbiz/content/jul2007/sb2007076_474371.htm.

Gallo, C. (2008). Deliver a Presentation like Steve Jobs Our communications coach breaks down the ace presenter's latest Macworld keynote. The result? A 10-part framework you can use to wow your own audience. Business Week. Retrieved from http://www.businessweek.com/smallbiz/content/jan2008/sb20080125_269732.htm.

Gallo, C. (2010). Steve Jobs as preacher Christian institutional leaders -- indeed, anyone who speaks to an audience -- can learn from the Apple CEO, writes Carmine Gallo. Duke University Leadership Education. Retrieved from http://www.faithandleadership.com/node/1110.

Gallo, C. (2010). The Presentation Secrets of Steve Jobs: How to be Insanely Great in Front of any Audience. New York: McGraw-Hill.

GearLive.com. (2008). Let’s Rock: Apple event planned for September 9. Retrieved from http://assets.gearlive.com/blogimages/apple-lets-rock.jpg.

Goeree, M.S. (2008). Limited Information and Advertising in the U.S. Personal Computer Industry.Econometrica. 76 (5), 1017-1074.

Goldstein, J.M (Photographer). (2007). Retrieved from http://jim-goldstein.photoshelter.com/gallery-image/MacWorld-Expo-2007/G0000QM4qJ66LOSs/I00000hu838IoWnI.

Guo, L. (2006). Consumption Flexibility, Product Configuration, and Market Competition. Marketing Science. 25 (2), 116-130.

Hall, J. and Rosson, P. (2006). The Impact of Technological Turbulence on Entreprenurial Behavior, Social Norms and Ethics: Three Internet-Based Cases. Journal of Business Ethics. 64 (3), 231-248.

Heath, A (Photographer). (2011). Photograph. Getty Images. Retrieved from http://www.cultofmac.com/124367/singer-john-mayer-shares-stories-about-his-personal-relationship-with-steve-jobs/.

Heineman, B.W. (2011). Disclosure About Steve Jobs’ Illness: Apple Should Provide It, the SEC Should Require It.The Atlantic. Retrieved from http://www.law.harvard.edu/programs/plp/pdf/Disclosure_About_Steve_Jobs_Illness.pdf.

Hellofs, L.L. and Jacobson, R. (1991). Market Share and Customers’ Perceptions of Quality: When Can Firms Grow Their Way to Higher versus Lower Quality? The Journal of Marketing. 63 (1), 16-25.

Henson, Ramon. (2011). Faculty Insight: The Leadership of Steve Jobs. Rutgers University Business School. Retrieved from http://business.rutgers.edu/news/faculty-insight-leadership-steve-jobs.

Hess, D.J. (2005). Technology—and Product-Oriented Movements: Approximating Social Movement Studies and Science and Technology Studies. Science, Technology, & Human Values. 30 (4), 515-535.

Hill, C.W.L. (1997). Establishing a Standard: Competitive Strategy and Technological Standards in Winner-Take-All Industries. The Academy of Management Executive (1993-2005). 11 (2), 7-25.

Horowitz, J. (2005). Apple’s iPod Battery Settlement, Explained. iLounge. Retrieved from http://www.ilounge.com/index.php/articles/comments/apples-ipod-battery-settlement-explained/.

Hurt, E. (2007). University of Texas-Austin: Viz: Visual Rhetoric, Visual Culture—Pedagogy: Mac vs. PC in the classroom. University of Texas-Austin. Retrieved from http://viz.cwrl.utexas.edu/files/Get_a_Mac_ad_characters.jpg.

Imbimbo, A. (2009). Steve Jobs: The Brilliant Mind Behind Apple. Pleasantville, New York: Gareth Stevens Publishing.

Jacob, R. (2011). The Legacy of Steve Jobs How the Apple co-founder changed the way we use technology. Retrieved from http://now.tufts.edu/articles/legacy-steve-jobs.

Jaffe, A.B. and Lerner, J. (2006). Innovation and It's Discontents. Innovation Policy and the Economy. (6), 27-65.

Jobs, S. (2008). Apple 2008 Environmental Update. Retrieved from http://www.apple.com/environment/reports/update.html.

Jobs, S. (1995). Smithsonian Institution Oral and Video Histories: Steve Jobs. April 20, 1995. Retrieved from http://americanhistory.si.edu/collections/comphist/sj1.html.

Johnson, M. and Spilger, U. (2000). Legal Considerations When Using Parodies in Advertising. Journal of Advertising. 29 (4), 77-86.

Kuzmin, E. Steve Jobs – his management and leadership style. Retrieved from http://cronkitehhh.personal.asu.edu/2011/12/steve-jobs-–-his-management-and-leadership-style/.

Lam, Pui-Yan. (2001). May the Force of the Operating System Be with You: Macintosh Devotion as Implicit Religion. Sociology of Religion. 62 (2), 243-262.

Larson, F (Photographer). (2003). Photograph. Retrieved from http://articles.sfgate.com/2003-10-16/business/17512397_1_itunes-windows-compatible-version-macintosh

Levine, M. (2011). Steve Jobs’ counter-cultural ties." Retrieved from http://sites.uci.edu/betweenthelines/blog/2011/10/14/steve-jobs-counter-cultural-ties/.

Liao-Troth, M.A. and Griffith, T.L. (2002). Software, Shareware and Freeware: Multiplex Commitment to an Electronic Social Exchange System. Journal of Organizational Behavior. 23 (5), 635-653.

Lindberg, C. (2009). Microsoft chief says entrepreneurship is alive and well, recession or not. Stanford Report. Retrieved from http://news.stanford.edu/news/2009/may13/ballmer-051309.html.

Linzmayer, O.W. (2004). Apple Confidential 2.0: The Definitive History of the World’s Most Colorful Company. San Francisco: No Starch Press

Lopatka, J.E. and Page, W.H. (1999). Antitrust on Internet Time: Microsoft and the Law and Economics of Exclusion. Supreme Court Economic Review. (7), 157-231.

Maciejewski, J.J. (2005). Reason as a Nexus of Natural Law and Rhetoric. Journal of Business Ethics. 59 (3), 247-257.

Malone, M.S. (1999). Infinite Loop: How the World’s Most Insanely Great Computer Company Went Insane. New York: Currency-Doubleday.

Marsal, K. (2006). iPod: how big can it get? Apple Insider. Retrieved from http://www.appleinsider.com/articles/06/05/24/ipod_how_big_can_it_get.html.

Marshall, K.P. (1999) Has Technology Introduced New Ethical Problems? Journal of Business Ethics. 19 (1), 81-90.

Massachusetts Institute of Technology School of Engineering. (2007). Inventor of the Week Archive: The Personal Computer. Retrieved from http://web.mit.edu/invent/iow/apple.html.

Maury, M.D. and Kleiner, D.S. (2002). E-Commerce, Ethical Commerce? Journal of Business Ethics. 36 (1-2), 21-31.

McGowan, M.K., Stephens, P. and Gruber, D. (2007). An Exploration of the Ideologies of Software Intellectual Property: The Impact on Ethical Decision Making. Journal of Business Ethics. 73 (4), 409-424.

McLester, S. (2005). 25 That Made Their Mark. Technology & Learning. 25 (10), 1-13.

Mishra, P. (2011). Oh Wow! Oh Wow! Oh Wow! Retrieved from http://punya.educ.msu.edu/2011/10/30/oh-wow-oh-wow-oh-wow/.

Moberg, D.J. (2000). Role Models and Moral Exemplars: How do Employees Acquire Virtues by Observing Others? Business Ethics Quarterly. 10 (3), 675-696.

Mopa.ca (photographer). (2010). Invincible Apple Steve Jobs 1998-2010. Last modified July 11, Retrieved from http://www.mopo.ca/wp-content/uploads/2010/07/apple-jobs1.jpg.

Mossberg, W and Swisher, K. (2007). Interview by Walt Mossberg and Kara Swisher. All Things Digital. Retrieved from http://allthingsd.com/20070531/d5-gates-jobs-transcript/.

Murugesan, S. (2011). What We Can Learn from Steve Jobs. IT Pro. (6-8).

Nichols, M. (2001). Smoke and Mirrors: How Does the Promise of the Internet Match Up to the Reality? The Women’s Review of Books. 18 (5), 15-16.

Nguyen, V. (2007). Complete Transcript of Steve Jobs, Macworld Conference and Expo, January 9, 2007. iPhone Buzz. Retrieved from http://www.iphonebuzz.com/complete-transcript-of-steve-jobs-macworld-conference-and-expo-january-9-2007-23447.php.

O'Brien, A. (2011). Rhetoric and Global Leadership. PWR: Stanford University Program in Writing and Rhetoric. Retrieved from http://www.stanford.edu/dept/undergrad/cgi-bin/drupal_pwr/rhetoric_global_leadership.

Oliver, R.L. (1997). Whence Consumer Loyalty? The Journal of Marketing. (63), 33-44. Open Computing Facility at the University of California-Berkeley. (2006). A HISTORY LESSON ON THE MAC (1979-1989)." Retrieved from www.ocf.berkeley.edu/~viettran/history.htm

Padmanabhan, V, Surrendra, R. and Srinivasan, K. (1997). New Products, Upgrades, and New Releases: A Rationale for Sequential Product Introduction. Journal for Marketing Research. 34 (4), 456-472.

Parayre, R. and Hurry, D. (2001). Corporate Investment and Strategic Stability in Hypercompetition. Mangerial and Decision Economics. (22), 281-298.

Petroski, H. (2005). Engineering: Shopping by Design. American Scientist. 93 (6), 491-495.

Phillips, R.J. (2000). Digital Technology and Institutional Change from the Gilded Age to Modern Times: The Impact of the Telegraph and the Internet. Journal of Economic Issues. 34 (2), 266-289.

Pinch, T.J. and Bijsterveld, K. (2003). “Should One Applaud?” Breaches and Boundaries in the Reception of New Technology in Music. Technology and Culture. 44 (3), 536-559.

Ranft, A.L. and O’Neill, H.M. (2001). Board Composition and High-Flying Founders: Hints of Trouble to Come? The Academy of Management Executive. 15 (1), 126-138.

Riley, D. (2008). WWDC 2008. Retrieved from http://techcrunch.com/2008/01/15/steve-jobs-keynote-live-from-macworld/.

Reuters. (2011). Steve Jobs Through the Years [PHOTOS]. Retrieved from http://www.ibtimes.com/articles/231228/20111014/steve-jobs-faces-photos.htm.

Saglimbeni , B. (2011). Steve Jobs – 5 Lessons He Taught Us From the Stage.University of Arizona Red Bar. Retrieved from http://redbar.web.arizona.edu/news/wp-content/uploads/2011/Steve Jobs_5 lessons he taught us.pdf.

Sandvig, C. Obsolete Technology. Retrieved from http://pactlabdev.spcomm.uiuc.edu/drupal/2011cmn280/node/8954.

Sauser, W.I. (2005). Ethics in Business: Answering the Call. Journal of Business Ethics 58 (4), 345-357.

Sharma, A. (2008). Drama, Narrative and Charismatic Leadership: The Case of Steve Jobs. Honors Thesis. University of Sydney.

Sharma, A., Wingfield, N. and Yuan, L. (2007). How Steve Jobs Played Hardball In iPhone Birth In Deal With Cingular He Called The Shots; Flirting With Verizon. The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved from http://faculty.coloradomtn.edu/jtroeger/business/assignments/week_06/readings/How Steve Jobs Played Hardball In iPhone Birth.pdf.

Shih, J. (2006) Circumventing Discrimination: Gender and Ethnic Strategies in Silicon Valley. Gender and Society. 23 (2), 177-206.

Smith, J.M. (1996). Geographical Rhetoric: Modes and Tropes of Appeal. Annals of the Association of American Geographers. 86 (1), 1-20.

Smith, K.G, Ferrier, W.J. and Grimm, C.M. (2001) King of the Hill: Dethroning the Industry Leader. The Academy of Management Executive (1993-2005). 15 (2), 59-70.

Sottong, S. (2008). The Elusive E-Book: Are e-books finally ready for prime time? American Libraries. 39 (5), 44-48.

Stanford University Knowledge Base. (2011). Lessons Learned from Steve Jobs. Retrieved from http://www.stanford.edu/group/knowledgebase/cgi-bin/2011/11/16/lessons-learned-from-steve-jobs/.

Sullivan, J (photographer). (2010). Photograph. Retrieved from http://www.inc.com/max-chafkin/what-the-apple-announcement-means.html.

The State University of New York: The University of Buffalo. (2008). Apple Inc. Retrieved from http://libweb.lib.buffalo.edu/wiki/instruction/ULC257/doku.php?id=apple_inc.

Toftoy, C.N. (1987). How CEOs Set Strategic Direction for their Organizations. Oxford, Ohio: The Planning Forum.

University of Buffalo. (2009). Innovations: 2000-2009." Retrieved from http://www.acsu.buffalo.edu/~mwaltos/lis506/project/2000s/innovations.html.

University of Southern California. (2012). Our People. Retrieved from http://www-scf.usc.edu/~steo/people.html.

Verganti, R. (2010). Apple's Secret? It Tells Us What We Should Love. Harvard Business Review. Retrieved from http://blogs.hbr.org/cs/2010/01/how_apple_innovates_by_telling.html.

Wharton School of Business at the University of Pennsylvania. (2008). Steve Wozniak on Apple, Steve Jobs and the Value of a Good Prank. Retrieved from http://knowledge.wharton.upenn.edu/article.cfm?articleid=1903.

Wharton School of Business at the University of Pennsylvania. (2009). Job-less: Steve Jobs’ Succession Plan Should Be a Top Priority for Apple. Retrieved from http://knowledge.wharton.upenn.edu/article.cfm?articleid=2134.

Wharton School of Business at the University of Pennsylvania. (2011). Life after Steve Jobs: What to Expect from the Next Generation at Apple. Retrieved from http://knowledge.wharton.upenn.edu/article.cfm?articleid=2859.

Wharton School of Business at the University of Pennsylvania. (2011). What Steve Jobs Leaves Behind. Retrieved from http://knowledgetoday.wharton.upenn.edu/2011/10/what-steve-jobs-leaves-behind/.

Whitehouse, K. (2008). Encounters with Steve. Wharton School of Business at the University of Pennsylvania. Retrieved from http://beacon.wharton.upenn.edu/kendallwhitehouse/2008/12/encounters-with-steve/.

Winston, B.E and Patterson, K. (2006). An Integrative Definition of Leadership.International Journal of Leadership Studies. 1 (2), 1-61.

YouTube (1984). The Lost 1984 Video: young Steve Jobs introduces the Macintosh. Retrieved from http://www.YouTube.com/watch?v=2B-XwPjn9YY&feature=related.

YouTube (1998). The First iMac Introduction. Retrieved from http://www.YouTube.com/watch?v=0BHPtoTctDY.

YouTube (1999). Macworld NY 1999-The First iBook Introduction. Retrieved from http://www.YouTube.com/watch?v=cdpRSj7tLiY&feature=related.

YouTube (1999). Steve Jobs Macworld 1999 Keynote (Part 6). Retrieved from http://www.YouTube.com/watch?v=wbWosAPDhgg&feature=related.

YouTube (2001). Apple - Steve Jobs introduces the iPod - 2001. Retrieved from http://www.YouTube.com/watch?v=Mc_FiHTITHE.

YouTube (2001). Steve Jobs Introduces the Apple Store. Retrieved from http://www.YouTube.com/watch?v=xLTNfIaL5YI&feature=related.

YouTube (2003). #01 Steve Jobs Keynote iTunes Music Stores Intro 2003-001. Retrieved from http://www.YouTube.com/watch?v=MpvEQSh3rqU&feature=related.

YouTube (2003). #02 Steve Jobs Keynote iTunes Music Stores Intro 2003-002. Retrieved from http://www.YouTube.com/watch?feature=endscreen&NR=1&v=47_9mUg0WVE.

YouTube (2003). #03 Steve Jobs Keynote iTunes Music Stores Intro 2003-003. Retrieved from http://www.YouTube.com/watch?v=Wlmh8DoAnGo&feature=related.

YouTube (2005). Apple Event San Jose 2005-The 5G Video iPod Introduction. Retrieved from http://www.YouTube.com/watch?v=Jyblf2P_q5Q.

YouTube (2005). Apple Music Special Event 2005-The iPod Nano Introduction. Retrieved from http://www.YouTube.com/watch?v=7GRv-kv5XEg.

YouTube (2010). Apple Announces iPad (Part 1 of 10). Retrieved from http://www.YouTube.com/watch?v=kplxBc2iw8M&feature=related.

YouTube (2010). Apple Announces iPad (Part 2 of 10). Retrieved from http://www.YouTube.com/watch?v=vjPyNXrZCNk&feature=related.

YouTube (2010). Apple Announces iPad (Part 3 of 10). Retrieved from http://www.YouTube.com/watch?v=ucMSFdqsHWU&feature=related

YouTube (2010). Apple Announces iPad (Part 4 of 10). Retrieved from http://www.YouTube.com/watch?v=mUpqmLECGDM&feature=related.

YouTube (2010). Apple Announces iPad (Part 8 of 10). Retrieved from http://www.YouTube.com/watch?v=ovqGs5zkutQ&feature=related

Zeller, B.E. (2010). Curriculum Vitae: Benjamin E. Zeller. New Religious Movements and Science. Retrieved from http://www.nrms.net/Benjamin_E._Zeller.html.

Zeller, B.E. (2011). Sightings October 20, 2011 Steve Jobs and the Cult of Apple. The University of Chicago Divinity School: The Martin Marty Center for the Advanced Study of Religion. Retrieved from http://divinity.uchicago.edu/martycenter/publications/sightings/archive_2011/1020.shtml.

Monthly Newsletter Signup

The newsletter highlights recent selections from the journal and useful tips from our blog.

Follow us to get updates from Inquiries Journal in your daily feed.

Follow @inquiriesjourn

Follow IJ

Latest in Business & Communications

Political Communication

2021, Vol. 13 No. 09

Covering Climate Change: A Sentiment Analysis of Major Newspaper Articles from 2010 - 2020

By Amy M. Patronella

This research lies at the nexus of political communication theory relating to emotional affect and political processing and the burgeoning field of sentiment analysis. News coverage can affect opinion both through the information it provides and... Read Article »

Climate Change The Media Political Communication Environmental Politics

Human Resources

2021, Vol. 13 No. 06

Industrial Safety: Factors that Present Barriers to Reporting Workplace Incidents and Contribute to Cultures of Non-Reporting

By Rana M. Van Tuyl

This research study explores factors that present barriers to reporting workplace incidents and contribute to cultures of non-report. The research purpose was to explore human, workplace/organizational, and external factors identified by industrial... Read Article »

Industrial Safety Safety Culture Workplace Culture Human Resources

Technology

2016, Vol. 8 No. 11

The Internet of Things: A Look Into The Social Implications of Google Glass

By Kelly N. Widerschein

In its beta release, Google Glass was positioned as a groundbreaking technology - a glimpse into a future that has long been promised in science fiction. It was met with media fanfare and consumer interest, despite costing more than most PCs on... Read Article »

Technology Virtual Reality Internet Of Things Wearable Tech Digital Privacy Google

New Media

2016, Vol. 7 No. 1

Models of Internet Monetization

By David Perell

Published by Elon Journal of Undergraduate Research in Communications

Predicting the future of the news industry begins with understanding the history of newspapers and the current news delivery landscape. Because the Internet has brought fundamental shifts to news distribution, successful organizations of the future... Read Article »

Media New Media Online Advertising Business Models News Media Monetization

Social Networking

2016, Vol. 7 No. 1

A Content Analysis of Celebrity Instagram Posts and Parasocial Interaction

By Janabeth Ward

Published by Elon Journal of Undergraduate Research in Communications

Instagram allows users to share a snapshot of their lives with a mass audience in a matter of seconds. This capability and power has not gone unnoticed by celebrities, who are highly aware of the impact their social media accounts have on fans and... Read Article »

Parasocial Interaction Instagram Celebrity Gratification Theory Social Networking Social Media

2016, Vol. 7 No. 1

How YouTube Developed into a Successful Platform for User-Generated Content

By Margaret Holland

Published by Elon Journal of Undergraduate Research in Communications

Since its development, YouTube, the world's third most popular online destination, has transformed from a video-sharing site into a job opportunity for content creators in both new and mainstream media. Based on content analysis, the study examined... Read Article »

YouTube User-Generated Content Personal Branding Content Creators Viewership Social Networks New Media

Social Media

2016, Vol. 7 No. 1

Yoga On Instagram: Disseminating or Destroying Traditional Yogic Principles?

By Skyler Cowans

Published by Elon Journal of Undergraduate Research in Communications

Today, more than 15 million Americans practice yoga, making the ancient Indian discipline synonymous with the Western society's culture of wellness. As a way to market themselves, practitioners and instructors of yoga have utilized Instagram &ndash... Read Article »

Yoga Instagram Social Media Personal Health Popular Culture

What are you looking for?

Tweets by @inquiriesjourn

FROM OUR BLOG

Writing a Graduate School Personal Statement

5 Tips for Publishing Your First Academic Article

Inquiries Journal

Social Sciences

Humanities

Arts

Sciences

A Rhetorical Examination of the Product Keynotes of Steve Jobs

Abstract

More By This Author:

From the Inquiries Journal Blog

Related Reading

Monthly Newsletter Signup

Suggested Reading from Inquiries Journal

Follow IJ

Latest in Business & Communications

What are you looking for?

FROM OUR BLOG

Social Sciences

Humanities

Arts

Sciences

A Rhetorical Examination of the Product Keynotes of Steve Jobs

Abstract

More By This Author:

From the Inquiries Journal Blog

Related Reading

Monthly Newsletter Signup

Suggested Reading from Inquiries Journal

Follow IJ

Latest in Business & Communications

What are you looking for?

FROM OUR BLOG

Need an Account?